学科英语文摘6篇
Academic English for Science & Technology
CONTENTS
T1How do computer hackers "get inside" a computer?....... (2)
Choosing a Topic.................... ........ .............. ................ (5)
Enhancing your academic language.................... .. (7)
Understanding of the Text.................... ........ ..... ..... ..... . (9)
T2 Introduction: Computer
Viruses.................... (10)
Searching for Information (1).................... .... .... .......... ... (14)
Enhancing your academic language.................... .......... (16)
Understanding of the Text.................... ........ (18)
T5 Can you compete with A.I. for the next job? (20)
Searching for Information (2)……….. …….. ….. ….. ….. ….. …. .23
Enhancing your academic language..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... . (24)
Understanding of the Text..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... ..26 T9Global Warming & Its Effects.................... ........ . (28)
Searching for Information (3)..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... (32)
Enhancing your academic language..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... . (37)
Understanding of the Text….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. .39 T12How Radiation Threatens Health………………..………. .41
Writing a Literature Review ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... .... (45)
Enhancing your academic language..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... . (51)
Understanding of the Text..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .53 T15Genetically Modified Foods –Feed the World?.. (55)
Writing an Academic Essay..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... (58)
Enhancing your academic language….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. . . .68 Understanding of the Text….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ….. .70 Expanding Reading:
Section A.. ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... (72)
Listening to Lectures..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... (74)
Section B.. ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... (79)
Making an Oral Presentation.. ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... . (81)
Text 1How do computer hackers "get inside" a computer?
August 16, 2004 Julie J.C.H. Ryan, an assistant professor at The George Washington University and co-author of Defending Your Digital Assets Against Hackers, Crackers (解密高手), Spies, and Thieves, explains.
1.This seems like a straightforward question but it’s actually quite
complex in its implications, and the answer is anything but simple.
The trivial (平凡而随便的)response is that ‘hackers get inside a target computer system by exploiting vulnerabilities(漏洞),’but in order to provide more detail, let’s start from the beginning.
2.The term ‘hacker’is fairly controversial in its meaning and
interpretation. Some people claim that hackers are good guys who simply push the boundaries of knowledge without doing any harm (at least not on purpose), whereas ‘crackers’ are the real bad guys.
This debate is not productive (富有成效的); for the purposes of this discussion, the term ‘unauthorized user’(UU未授权用户) will suffice (足够了). This moniker (绰号/名称=UU) covers the entire spectrum (范围) of folks, from those involved in organized criminal activities to insiders who are pushing the limits of what they are authorized to do on a system.
3.Next let’s explore what it means to ‘get inside’ a computer. This can
refer to gaining access to the stored contents of a computer system, gaining access to the processing capabilities of a system, or intercepting(截取)information being communicated between systems. Each of these attacks requires a different set of skills and targets a different set of vulnerabilities.
4.So what do UUs take advantage of? Vulnerabilities exist in every
system and there are two kinds: known and unknown. Known
vulnerabilities often exist as the result of needed capabilities. For instance, if you require different people to use a system in order to accomplish some business process, you have a known vulnerability: users. Another example of a known vulnerability is the ability to communicate over the Internet; enabling this capability, you open an access path to unknown and untrusted entities.
Unknown vulnerabilities, which the owner or operator of a system is not aware of, may be the result of poor engineering, or may arise from unintended consequences of some of the needed capabilities.
5.By definition, vulnerabilities may be exploited. These can range
from poor password protection to leaving a computer turned on and physically accessible to visitors to the office. More than one technical exploit has been managed simply by sitting at the receptionist’s desk and using his computer to access the desired information. Poor passwords (for example, a username of ‘Joe Smith’with an accompanying password of ‘joesmith’) are also a rich source of access: password cracking programs can easily identify dictionary words, names, and even common phrases within
a matter of minutes. Attempts to make those passwords more
complex by replacing letters with numbers, such as replacing the letter O with the number zero, don’t make the task much harder.
And when a UU can utilize a valid username-password combination, getting access to a system is as easy as logging in.
6.If a target system is very strongly protected (by an architecture that
includes both technical controls such as firewalls or security software, and managerial controls such as well defined policies and procedures) and difficult to access remotely, a UU might employ low-technology attacks. These tactics may include bribing an authorized user, taking a temporary job with a janitorial services firm, or dumpster diving (rifling through trash in search of information). If the target system is not so strongly protected, then a UU can use technical exploits to gain access.
7.To employ technical exploits a UU must first determine the
specifications of the target system. It would do no good whatsoever for a UU to use a technical exploit against a Microsoft vulnerability if the target system is a Macintosh. The UU must know what the target system is, how it is configured(配置), and what kind of networking capabilities it has. Once these parameters (which can be determined remotely through a variety of methods) are known, then the UU can exploit the configuration’s known vulnerabilities.
The availability of preprogrammed attacks for common configurations can make this task quite simple; UUs that use these scripted (改编的) capabilities are somewhat derisively (嘲弄的) known as ‘script kiddies.’
8.One way a technically proficient UU can remotely determine the
configuration of a target system is through capabilities inherent in hypertext transfer protocol (http). Users who access certain Web sites actually send configuration information, such as the type of browser being used, to the requesting site. Once the system configuration is known, then exploits can be selected. An example of an exploit that takes advantage of system-specific vulnerabilities is described in the following statement from the U.S. Computer Emergency Response Team (US CERT): ‘Exploit code has been publicly released that takes advantage of a buffer overflow (缓冲区溢出) vulnerability in the Microsoft Private Communication Technology (PCT) protocol (协议). The vulnerability allows a remote attacker to execute arbitrary (任意的) code with SYSTEM privileges.’
[see https://www.doczj.com/doc/0e14828566.html,/current/current_activity.html for more information] 9.Another type of attack is one that is preprogrammed against
specific vulnerabilities and is launched without any specific target--it is blasted out shotgun style with the goal of reaching as many potential targets as possible.This type of attack eliminates the need for the first step, but is less predictable in both outcome and effectiveness against any given target.
10.It’s important to recognize that the end goal of unauthorized access
varies depending on the UU’s motivations. For example, if a UU is trying to gather a lot of zombie(呆板的) computers for use in a distributed denial of service attack, then the goal is to sneak a client program onto as many computers as possible. One way to do this fairly effectively is through the use of a so-called Trojan horse program, which installs the malicious program without the knowledge or consent (同意) of the user. Some of more recent mass Internet attacks have had this profile (形象/姿态) as an element of the attack pattern.
11.Protecting yourself against attacks is a multistep(多级) process,
which aims to limit and manage the vulnerabilities of your system.
(It’s impossible to eliminate them all.) First, make sure you have all the latest patches for your operating system and applications--these patches generally fix exploitable vulnerabilities.
Make sure your password is complex: it should include letters, numbers, and symbolic characters in a nonsensical(无意义的)
manner. Also, consider getting a hardware firewall and limiting the flow of data to and from the Internet to only the few select ports you actually need, such as e-mail and Web traffic.Make sure your antivirus software is up-to-date and check frequently to see if there are new virus definitions available. (If you are using a Windows system, you should ideally update your virus definitions every day.) Finally, back up your data. That way if something bad does happen, you can at least recover the important stuff.
Choosing a Topic
1. Deciding on a topic
1) Four principles of deciding on a topic:
2) Narrowing the topic
City Development
Sustainable Development of Cities
Sustainable Development of Big Cities
Sustainable Development of Chinese Big Cities
Sustainable Development of Chinese Big Cities from the Biological Perspective
2. Formulating a research question
3. Writing a working title
Enhancing your academic language
Te x t 1 (pp.4-6) of Unit 1
I、Match the words with their definitions(p.21).
1g;2a;3e;4b;5c;6d;7j;8f;9h;10i
II、Complete the following expressions or sentences(p.22).
1 a(n) symbolic (象征的) gesture of love
2 The publisher distribute (分发) the book in Asia.
3 A “site” (地点) is a place, and so a website.
4 a(n) complex (复杂的) network of systems
5 be used to identify (识别) potential terrorists
6 deal the matter with him physically (完全地)
7 start with a pretty straightforward (直截了当) question
8 beyond the capability (功能) of the computers
9 hit the target (目标) at a distance
10 the person never attempt (尝试) to do anything more
11 a highly sophisticated process (过程)
12 work within the parameter (限定因素) of time & budget
13 thanks for your kind interpretation (解释)
14 use many technical (专业的) terms
15 Prices range (变化范围) from $340 to $390.
16 exploit (开拓) a new market in the city
17 be absorbed in the social networking (网络)
18 involve (涉及) unnecessary extra charges
19 only one instance (实例) out of many
20 get to know more about the specification (具体细节) of the wedding
21 accompany (陪伴) with her to watch movies
22 the only thing predictable (可预言的) about life
23 learn the profile (概要) of the project
III、Complete the paragraph(p.23)
When it comes to cloud computing, it is often worried that cloud computing is not reliable, the worries ranging from (从…到) “I lose control over the system with cloud computing”to “My files are not secure with cloud computing”. Actually the worries arise from some misunderstandings (来自于对……误解) of cloud computing. Although the security of cloud computing leaves a lot of problems unsolved (留下很多问题没有得到解决), it opens a path for (打开了通道) the future development of computers. Hence a better understanding of a new technology requires a different frame of mind (需要有新的思想).
IV、Translate the following sentences from Text 1 into Chinese.
1. 有些人声称黑客是那些扩宽知识界限而不造成危害的好人（或即使造成危害，但并非故意而为），而“破碎者”才是真正的坏人。
Some people claim that hackers are good guys who simply push the boundaries of knowledge without doing any harm (at least no t on purpose), whereas ‘crackers’ are the real bad guys.
2. 这可以指获取计算机系统的存储内容，获得一个系统的处理能力，或捕获系统之间正在交流的信息。
This can refer to gaining access to the stored contents of a computer system, gaining access to the processing capabilities of a system, or intercepting information being communicated between systems.
3. 那些系统开发者或操作者所忽视的不为人知的漏洞很可能是由于糟糕的设计造成的，也可能是为了让系统具备一些必要的功能而导致计划外的结果。
Unknown vulnerabilities, which the owner or operator of a system is not aware of, may be the result of poor engineering, or may arise from unintended consequences of some of the needed capabilities.
4. 另一种是预先设定好程序对特定易受攻击对象进行攻击，然而，这种攻击是以鸟枪式的方式发出的，没有任何具体目标，目的是攻击到尽可能多的潜在目标。Another type of attack is one that is preprogrammed against specific vulnerabilities and is launched without any specific target--it is blasted out shotgun style with the goal of reaching as many potential targets as possible.
5. 另外，考虑安装一个硬件防火墙并将从互联网中流入和流出的数据限定在仅有的几个你真正需要的端口，如电子邮件和网站流量。
Also, consider getting a hardware firewall and limiting the flow of data to and from the Internet to only the few select ports you actually need, such as e-mail and Web traffic.
Understanding of the Text
Text 1 电脑黑客如何进入电脑
1. 这好像是一个直接的问题，但是内涵很复杂，答案绝不简单，如果随便地回答，那
么黑客通过利用弱点进入目标电脑系统。但是为了提供更多细节，我们还是从头说起。
2. “hacker” 这个词在意义和解释上都很有争议。有些人声称黑客是那些扩宽知识界限
而不造成危害的好人（或即使造成危害，但并非故意而为），而“破碎者”才是真正的坏人。
这种争论没有什么效果，如果是为了这种讨论的目的，术语“未授权的使用者”（UU）就足够用了。这个术语包含了所有不同类型的人，从那些参与有组织犯罪行为的人到那些内部人士，他们突破了在系统中被授予的权限。
3. 接下来我们探讨一下“进入” 电脑意味着什么。这可以指获取计算机系统的存储内
容，获得一个系统的处理能力，或捕获系统之间正在交流的信息。每种攻击都需要不同的技巧，以不同的漏洞为目标。
4. 那么“未授权的使用者”利用的是什么？漏洞存在于每个系统中，并且有两个漏洞：
已知的和未知的。已知的漏洞通常因为需要某些能力而存在。比如，为了某个商业过程，你需要不同的人使用一个系统，你就有一个已知的漏洞：使用者。另一个已知漏洞的例子是通过互联网交流的能力，为了具备这个能力，你要给未知和不被信任的实体开通一条路径。那些系统开发者或操作者所忽视的不为人知的漏洞很可能是由于糟糕的设计造成的，也可能是为了让系统具备一些必要的功能而导致计划外的结果。
5. 按定义，漏洞可能被利用。这些漏洞可以是低级的密码保护，也可以是让电脑开着，
让办公室的访客可以利用。只要坐在接待员的桌前，用他的电脑获得需要的信息，就有超过一种技术被利用。低级的密码（如用户名“Joe Smith”, 密码也是“Joe Smith”）也是接近电脑的丰富的来源：密码破译程序可以很容易在几分钟内确认字典中的单词、姓名，甚至常见短语。通过用数字代替字母，使这些密码更复杂。比如用0来代替字母O，并不会使任务更复杂。当未获授权的使用者使用有效的用户名——密码组合，进入系统就是简单的登录了。
6. 假如目标系统被很好地保护（通过技术控制，比如防火墙或安全软件，还有管理控
制，比如明确的政策和过程），并且远程难以进入，未获授权的使用者可能会使用低技术的攻击，这些策略可能包括贿赂获授权的使用者，在清洁公司做临时工，或者在垃圾堆里翻找信息。如果目标系统没有得到很好的保护，那么未获授权的使用者可以使用技术手段进入。
7. 为了使用技术手段未获授权的使用者必须先决定目标系统的规格。对未获授权使用
者来说，如果目标系统是Macintosh, 使用攻击微软漏洞的技术手段没有任何好处。他们必须知道目标系统是什么，它是怎样配置的，它有哪种联网能力。一旦知道了这些参数（它们可以通过多种方法远程获得），他们就可以利用这些配置的已知漏洞。对于常见的配置可以利用先设置好的攻击方式，这样能让这次任务很简单。使用这些预先设置的攻击能力的人有时被嘲笑为“脚本小子” 。
8. 技术熟练的人可以远程决定目标系统的配置，其中一个办法是通过超文本传输协议
内在的能力。接近固有网站的人把配置信息，比如正在被使用的浏览器类型，发送到发出请求的地址。一旦系统配置已知，就可以选择手段。
9. 另一种是预先设定好程序对特定易受攻击对象进行攻击，然而，这种攻击是以鸟枪
式的方式发出的，没有任何具体目标，目的是攻击到尽可能多的潜在目标。这种攻击略去了第一步。但是对于任何给定的目标其结果和有效性都不太好预测。
10. 应该注意到未获授权的进入其最终目的因为进入者的动机而有不同，比如，如果他
想收集很多僵尸电脑，而又不想在服务时进行攻击，那他的目的就是把客户程序偷偷安装到尽量多的电脑上，这样做的一种有效方式就是通过使用所谓的特洛伊木马程序，它是在用户不知情或不同意的情况下安装恶意程序，有些更近期发生的大规模网络攻击，有些更近期发生的大规模网络攻击，有这样的姿态作为攻击类型的要素。
11. 保护好自己不受攻击是多步的过程，目的是限制和管理系统的漏洞（并不可能完全
消除这些漏洞）。首先，保证你有操作系统和应用程序的最新补丁——这些补丁通常会修补可以利用的弱点，保证你的密码够复杂：包括字母、数字和象征符号，并且毫无意义。另外，考虑安装一个硬件防火墙并将从互联网中流入和流出的数据限定在仅有的几个你真正需要的端口，如电子邮件和网站流量。保证你的反病毒软件是最新的，经常检查是否有新的病毒定义（如果你正在使用Windows 系统，理想状态下你应该每天升级病毒定义）。最后，备份你的数据，那样如果不好的情况真的发生，至少你可以恢复重要的东西。
Text 2 Introduction: Computer Viruses
11:04 04 September 2006 by Will Knight
Artist’s impression of computer bugs on a circuit board (Image: Vanessa Kellas/Rex Features) 1.Any computer connected to the internet faces a daunting (吓人的)
range of electronic threats. Perhaps the biggest single threat to any computer is the humble (简陋的) software bug (病毒\漏洞). Seemingly innocuous (harmless) programming errors can be exploited to force entry into a computer and also provide the weak spots that allow computer worms and viruses to proliferate (=multiply增值).
2.Many software bugs will simply cause a computer to crash. But an
expert programmer can sometimes figure out how to make a computer malfunction (故障/失灵)in a creative way, so that it provides access to secure parts of a system, or shares protected data.
3.When a software vulnerability is revealed, it is often a race against
the clock to apply the correct software patch before an attacker can convert the bug into an "exploit" that can be used to cause major damage.
Viruses and worms
4. A computer virus is a program that spreads between computers by
hiding itself within a - seemingly innocent - document or application.
A worm, on the other hand, is a program that replicates (复制) and
travels without "infecting" anything else on a system.
5.Many modern specimens(样本) of malevolent(恶毒/恶意的)code,
however, use a mixture of tricks to cheat their way onto computer systems, blurring (模糊) the line between worms and viruses. The terms are now often used interchangeably.
6.The first worms appeared in the 1970s and spread slowly between
computers connected to the same network. They simply displayed an annoying message on the screen of each infected machine. The first computer virus, called Elk Cloner, was written in 1982 and infected computers via floppy disks.
Trojans and zombies (僵尸)
7.But viruses and worms no longer just provide a way for malevolent
hackers to gain notoriety (声名狼藉). Today’s viral (由病毒引起的) code can contaminate (=infect) computers at lightning speed, spreading via email, peer-to-peer file-sharing (点对点文件共享) networks and even instant messaging programs. The most successful ones cause serious damage, forcing companies around the globe to close down while infected computers are cleaned up.
8. A string (=series) of recent specimens have been designed to
snatch (窃取)passwords or credit card information and install programs that can be used to remotely control infected machines.
These programs are known as trojan horses (特洛伊木马).
9.There is evidence that virus writers can earn large amounts of
money by leasing access to (以租赁方式进入)networks of compromised (被盗用的) computers - often referred to as "botnets (僵尸网络)". These groups of remote-controlled "zombies" have been used to extort money (搂款) from websites, by threatening to crash (死机)them with a denial-of-service (DOS拒绝服务) attack. This involves overloading a server with bogus (=false) page requests, so
that real messages cannot get through.
Spam, Spam, Spam(垃圾邮件)
10.Spammers have also begun using botnets to forward unsolicited
bulk(大量来路不明的)email advertising, or spam, through scores (=large quantities) of zombie PCs (个人通讯服务). This makes it far more difficult for spam hunters (=tracking spam) to block the messages at source and catch the culprits (罪魁祸首).
11.Once considered a fairly minor problem, spam is rapidly spiralling
(不断恶化)out of control, and much more than half of all email messages are now thought to consist of unwanted advertising messages.
12.To combat computer scientists’best efforts to stem (=block) the
tide of junk email (=spam), the spammers have had to become more cunning and sophisticated. More recently, spim (垃圾讯息) (spam by instant messenger) and spit (spam by internet telephony) have joined the fray (=quarrel/debate/combat).
Phishing
13.Spam’s more sinister (邪恶的) cousin is the phishing email. This is a
con (诈骗) trick that arrives as an email and tries to trick a recipient into handing over money or sensitive personal information like their bank account details or a username and password.
14.The simplest phishing tricks try to dupe a target into sending money
as part of a get-rich-quick scheme. But phishing tricksters are also getting more devious and recent scams(欺诈)pose as customer service emails and send users to bogus banking or commercial websites where they are invited to "re-enter" their account information.
15.Some genuine sites have even proven vulnerable to software
glitches (=small bug) that can be exploited to capture information from regular users. Phishing is especially threatening because it can be used to steal a person’s digital identity.
Spyware
16.Along with spam and phishing, spyware represents the third of an
unhappy trinity (三位一体)of internet pests. These insidious
(=cunning) and clandestine (私下/偷偷摸摸的) programs typically find their way onto a computer system alongside another, often free, software application, although some can also exploit software bugs to get onto a machine. The programs are used to serve up unwanted adverts (=ad), change system settings and gather information on a user’s online behavior for marketing purposes.
Hackers
17.The term "computer hacker" was first coined (杜撰) in the 1960s and
originally meant someone capable of developing an ingenious (=creative) solution to a programming problem. But the phrase has since fallen into disrepute (声名狼藉), entering the popular vocabulary as a term for a programmer with criminal intent.
18.The earliest "criminal" hackers were in fact relatively harmless,
interested in testing the boundaries of their knowledge and their ability to get around security measures. They mainly performed innocuous pranks (无害的恶作剧), for example employing low-tech tricks to get free calls through the US phone networks.
19.There are many tools in the modern hacking kit, including network
scanners, packet sniffers (数据包嗅探仪), rootkits (隐藏软件)and decompilers (解、编译程序). But "social engineering" - for example, putting a particularly enticing message in an email header to encourage people to open it - and even search engines can also be useful weapons for the hacker.
Computer crime
20.As the number of computers networks has grown, so have the
possibilities for more serious misuse. And, as money increasingly becomes a digital commodity, the world has seen the emergence of serious computer criminals.
21.Criminal gangs have also started to get in on (参与) the action,
attracted by the huge quantities of money now spent online every day. There is evidence that unscrupulous (肆无忌惮的) experts can also earn serious money from crime syndicates (=criminal gangs) by breaking into computer systems, writing viruses and creating phishing scams.
22.And it is not just ordinary desktop computers that are under threat.
Governments, banks and critical (=key) infrastructure can also be
brought to a standstill (使之停业)by an expert armed only with a laptop computer and a net connection.
Mobile menace (=threat)
23.The biggest new target for computer hackers is the mobile device.
Virus writers are already experimenting with code designed for smartphones(智能手机) and experts predict more may be on the way, while hackers are also looking at ways to crack(崩溃) handheld devices.
24.While the internet has transformed global communication beyond
recognition, the arms race between those intent on harnessing (=utilizing / treatment)its power for criminal purposes and those tasked with preventing them has only just begun.
Searching for Information (1)
1. Finding reliable and better sources (To evaluate source materials)
2. Scanning and skimming (Tips for scanning and skimming)
1) Scanning:
●keep in mind at all times what you are searching for (e.g., the definition of a term, the effect of a phenomenon);
●search thesis statements and topic sentences in paragraphs for the information you want to gain;
●use the knowledge of the essay organization (such as cause-effect, comparison-contrast, problem-solution) to find what you are looking for;
●pay attention to signal words such as numbers, letters, steps, the words such as first, second, and next, or words that are bold-faced, italics, or in different sizes, fonts, etc.
2) Skimming
●the title and subtitles;
●the abstract (if there is one);
●the introduction and thesis;
●the first or last paragraphs of the essays/chapters;
●headings and subheadings;
●the conclusion and summaries;
●the first sentence or the last sentence of each paragraph;
●highlighted texts such as words in bold or italic text;
●graphs, tables or diagrams.
Enhancing your academic language
Te x t 2 (pp.7-10) of Unit 1
I、Match the words with their definitions(p.24).
1d;2f;3h;4i;5a;6e;7b;8j;9g;10c
II、Complete the following expressions or sentences(p.25).
1 throw away a(n) compromised (损坏的) computer
2 earn somebody considerable notoriety (恶名)
3 be used interchangeably (可互换地)
4 A computer has malfunctioned (发生故障).
5 squeeze (挤) milk into the bottle
6 a(n) ingenious (有独创性的) solution to the problem
7 China’s emergence (出现) as a great power
8 of humble (卑微的) birth
9 Cunning (狡猾的) men often pass for wise.
10 exploit their vulnerability (弱点) to fight them
11 a suspected criminal (罪犯)
12 a jacket with leather patches (补丁) on the elbows.
13 the sinister (阴险的) looks on his face
14 This is a(n) daunting (艰巨的) challenge.
15 the virus that can replicate (复制) itself
16 His malicious (恶毒的) gossip caused much mischief.
17 The path spirals (盘旋) up the mountain.
18 a(n) secure (安全的) operating system
19 blur (使模糊) my vision
20 stem (阻止) the spread of an epidemic
21 fall into disrepute (坏名声)
22 solve sophisticated (复杂的) electrical problems
23 harness (利用) natural resources
24 write a personal note to each recipient (收件人)
25 convert (转换) holdings into shares
III、Complete the paragraph(p.26)
There is evidence (有证据表明) that as the number of web users has grown, so has the number of hackers (黑客的数量也有很大增长). Computer hackers are often referred to as (往往被称之为) the major threat to the Internet as they can deliver dangerous malware to your computer and compromise your computer (损坏你的计算机) or capture your information (获取你的信息). They can also try to access your computer (进入你的计算机) if you are not protected with a firewall. IV、Translate the following sentences from Text 2 into Chinese.
1. 看似无害的编程错误可以被利用，导致电脑被侵入并为电脑蠕虫和病毒的繁衍提供温床。
Seemingly innocuous (harmless) programming errors can be exploited to force entry into a computer and also provide the weak spots that allow computer worms and viruses to proliferate.
2. 当一个软件漏洞被发现，黑客可以将漏洞变成一个侵入点，从而造成极大的破坏，在这之前，往往需要争分夺秒地利用正确的软件补丁来防止破坏的发生。When a software vulnerability is revealed, it is often a race against the clock to apply the correct software patch before an attacker can convert the bug into an "exploit" that can be used to cause major damage.
3. 最简单的钓鱼骗局试图利用迅速致富的伎俩诱使诈骗目标寄钱。但网络骗子们也变得越来越狡猾，最近的陷阱是通过发送客户服务的电子邮件让用户进入假银行或商业网站，并在那里请他们“重新输入”他们的账户信息。
The simplest phishing tricks try to dupe a target into sending money as part of a get-rich-quick scheme. But phishing tricksters are also getting more devious and recent scams pose as customer service emails and send users to bogus banking or commercial websites where they are invited to "re-enter" their account information.
4. 间谍软件与垃圾邮件和钓鱼网络一起，构成了三个令人生厌的互联网害虫。尽管有些程序可以通过入侵软件漏洞从而进入电脑，但这些有害而秘密的程序通常会随着其他通常是免费的应用软件侵入到计算机系统中。
Along with spam and phishing, spyware represents the third of an unhappy trinity of internet pests. These insidious and clandestine programs typically find their way onto a computer system alongside another, often free, software application, although some can also exploit software bugs to get onto a machine.
5. 尽管因特网已经彻底改变了全球通讯，但是对于那些意图为了罪恶目的而利用网络力量的人和那些负责阻止这些网络犯罪的人来说，他们之间的较量才刚刚开始。
While the internet has transformed global communication beyond recognition, the arms race between those intent on harnessing its power for criminal purposes and those tasked with preventing them has only just begun.
Understanding of the Text
Text 2 电脑面临的电子威胁
1. 任何联网的电脑都面临一系列吓人的电子威胁。也许对任何电脑而言，最大的单个威胁是低劣的软件。看似无害的编程错误可以被利用，导致电脑被侵入并为电脑蠕虫和病毒的繁衍提供温床。
2. 许多软件缺陷会导致电脑崩溃，但是专业编程人员有时会想出如何以一种有创意的方式让电脑失控，这样它可以进入系统的安全部分，或分享受保护的数据。
3. 当一个软件漏洞被发现，黑客可以将漏洞变成一个侵入点，从而造成极大的破坏，在这之前，往往需要争分夺秒地利用正确的软件补丁来防止破坏的发生。
病毒和蠕虫
4. 电脑病毒是一种在电脑之间传播的程序，似乎很无辜地把自己隐藏到文件或应用程序中。而另一方面，蠕虫是一种能复制和旅行的程序，它不会感染系统中的其他东西。
5. 许多现代的恶意代码样本，使用混合的技巧来骗取进入电脑系统的路径，混淆了蠕虫和病毒的界限，所以这两个术语现在可以互换。
6. 第一批蠕虫出现在二十世纪七十年代，在同样网络的电脑之间缓慢传播。它们只是在每台被感染的机器屏幕上显示令人烦恼的信息。第一个电脑病毒被称为Elk Cloner, 在1982年写成，通过软盘感染电脑。
特洛伊和僵尸
7. 但是病毒和蠕虫不再仅仅是为有敌意的黑客提供臭名远扬的机会。现在的病毒代码会以光的速度感染电脑。通过email, 点对点文件共享网络，甚至是即时信息程序传播。最成功的病毒会导致严重损伤，被感染的电脑进行清理时，会迫使全球企业关门。
8. 一系列最近的样本被设计来盗取密码或信用卡信息，并且安装可以被用来远程控制受感染机器的程序。这些程序被称为特洛伊木马。
9. 有证据表明病毒写作者可以通过出租进入被感染电脑网络的权利而大赚一笔——这些网络常被称作是“僵尸网络” 。这些被远程控制的“僵尸”团队被用来从网站挤出钱，方式是威胁用拒绝服务攻击的手段让这些电脑崩溃。这涉及到用虚假网页请求过载服务器，这样真正的信息就不能进入。
垃圾邮件
10. 垃圾邮件发送者也开始通过许多僵尸电脑使用僵尸网络来发送大量来路不明的邮件广告或垃圾邮件。这使得追踪垃圾邮件的人更难从源头阻挡信息，抓住罪魁祸首。
11. 垃圾邮件曾被认为是相当小的问题，但是却在迅速增长以至失控，一大半的email 信息都被认为包含不被需要的广告信息。
12. 电脑科学家在尽最大努力制止垃圾邮件潮，为了应对这种局面，垃圾邮件发出者变得更狡猾和复杂。最近，“spim”(通过即时信使发送的垃圾邮件)和“spit”(通过网络电话通讯技术发送的垃圾邮件) 也加入了这场战斗。
钓鱼
13. 比垃圾邮件更邪恶的是网络钓鱼电子邮件，这是一个以邮件形式出现的骗局，想要欺骗收信者交出钱或敏感的个人信息，比如银行账户细节或用户名和密码。
14. 简单的钓鱼骗局试图利用迅速致富的伎俩诱使诈骗目标寄钱。但网络骗子们也变得越来越狡猾，最近的陷阱是通过发送客户服务的电子邮件让用户进入假银行或商业网站，并在那里请他们“重新输入”他们的账户信息。
15. 有些真实的网站对软件缺陷很脆弱，这些缺陷可被用来捕捉经常性用户的信息。网络钓鱼尤其有威胁，因为它可以被用来偷取个人的电子身份。
间谍软件
16. 间谍软件与垃圾邮件和钓鱼网络一起，构成了三个令人生厌的互联网害虫。尽管有些程序可以通过入侵软件漏洞从而进入电脑，但这些有害而秘密的程序通常会随着其他通常是免费的应用软件侵入到计算机系统中。这些程序被用来服务于不被人需要的广告，改变系统设置，收集用户上网行为的信息，以做商业用途。
黑客
17. “电脑黑客”这个术语初创于20 世纪60 年代，意思是有能力有独创性地解决程序问题的某个人，但是这个词语从那以后变得不光彩。作为一个代表有犯罪意图的编程者的术语进入流行词语的范畴。
18. 最早的“罪犯”黑客们实际上相对无害，他们只是想测试一下他们的知识和解决安全问题手段的能力之间的界限。他们主要是弄一些无害的恶作剧，比如使用低技术手段通过美国电话网络打免费电话。
19. 在现代黑客工具包中有很多工具，比如网络扫描仪，数据包嗅探器，隐藏其他程序进程的软件和解编译程序。但“社会工程”——比如，在email 的标题上放上有诱惑力的信息，以鼓励人们打开邮件——还有甚至是搜索引擎也可以是黑客有用的武器。
计算机犯罪
20. 随着计算机网络数量的增加，更多严重误用的可能性也在增加。随着钱日益成为数字商品，严重的电脑罪犯也在出现。
21. 犯罪团伙也开始加入，因为受到每天投入网络的大量钱的吸引。有证据表明不诚实的专家也可以从犯罪团伙赚到大笔钱，他们闯入电脑系统，写病毒，制造网络钓鱼的阴谋。
22. 不仅仅是普通的台式电脑处于威胁之中，仅靠一台笔记本电脑，一个网络连接，一位专家就能让政府、银行和关键的基础设施陷入停顿。
移动的威胁
23. 电脑黑客新的最大目标是移动设备。病毒写作者正在试验为智能电话设计的代码，专家预计更多的代码正在写作中，而黑客也在考虑让手持设备崩溃的方式。
24. 尽管因特网已经彻底改变了全球通讯，但是对于那些意图为了罪恶目的而利用网络力量的人和那些负责阻止这些网络犯罪的人来说，他们之间的较量才刚刚开始。
1.主谓一致 主谓一致Subject-Verb Concord即谓语动词在人称和数上要和主语保持一致，主谓一致包括语法一致、意义一致和就近一致。 指导原则 语法一致 语法一致即谓语动词在单复数形式上要和主语保持一致 eg. A grammar book helps you learn something about the rules of a language. (主语是单数形式，谓语也采取单数形式） 语法书帮助你学习语言的某些规则. Grammar books help you learn something about the rules of a language. (主语是复数形式，谓语也采取复数形式） 语法书帮助你学习语言的某些规则. 意义一致和就近原则 意义一致就是谓语动词要和主语意义上的单复数保持一致。 补充解释和例句见书P22 就近一致就是谓语动词要和靠近它的主语部分保持一致。 常出现在这类句子中的连词有：or, either…or…，neither…nor …，not only…but also …等. 例句见书P23 英语中，有时几个名词或代词有某些此连接起来一起作句子的主语，此时，谓语动词的形式就须有与之最接近的名词或代词的人称和数决定。如： (1) There is a desk and five chairs in his room. 他房间里有一张办公桌和五把椅子。 There are five chairs and a desk in his room. 他房间里有五把椅子和一张办公桌。 (2) Either you or Li Lei is going to be sent there. 要么是你要么是李蕾将被派到那里去。 Are either you or Li Lei going to be sent there 是你将被派到那里去还是李蕾将被派到那里去 结尾的名词作主语 以-s结尾的疾病名称和游戏名称 以-ics结尾的学科名称 以-s结尾的地理名称 其他以-s结尾的名词 以集合名词作主语 通常作复数的集体名词 见书P27 【注】goods(货物), clothes(衣服)只有复数形式，且只表示复数意义： Such clothes are very cheap. 那样的衣服很便宜。 All the goods have been sent to them. 所有的货物都给他们送去了。 通常作不可数名词的集体名词 clothing(衣服)，poetry(诗歌)，baggage / luggage(行李)， furniture(家具)，machinery(机械)，scenery(景色)，jewelry(珠宝)，equipment(设备)等集合名词通常只用作不可数名词，表示单数意义，用作主语时，其后谓语动词用单数形式。 既可做单数也可作复数的集体名词 family(家庭)，team(队，队员)，class(班，班上的全体学生)，crowd(人群)，government(政府)，crew(乘务员)，committee(委员会)，audience(听众)，public(公众)等集合名词，当它们表示整体意义时，表单数意义，当它们强调个体意义时，表示复数意义。 【注】有时没有特定的语境，用单复数谓语均可以：
英语学术论文常用词句 1. 常用词汇与短语 差别：gaps between, differentiate between, discrepancies，no intergroup difference 存在，出现：occurred, occurrence ,existed, existence, presence, present 多数，少数：the overwhelming majority of, in the majority of cases ，a marked majority, handful 方法：approaches, avenues, methods, techniques, means, tools 发生率：Incidence, frequency, prevalence 发现，阐明，报道，证实：verify, confirm, elucidate, identify, define, characterize, clarify, establish, ascertain, explain, observe, illuminate, illustrate，demonstrate, show, indicate, exhibit, presented, reveal, display, manifest，suggest, propose, estimate, prove, imply, disclose，report, describe，facilitate the identification of ，screening ，isolation 改变：change, alteration, 高，增加：high, enhanced, elevated, increased, forced 各种，多种：in multiple types of, in various types of, in a variety of 关系，相关，参与：closely involved in, associated, 广泛的：in an extensive survey 执行：perform, carry out 降，少，缺：decrease, reduction, reduced, diminish, loss, suppression, deficient, low, weak, faint, light, absence, absent, undetectable, lack ,defective, negative,poor,impaired, greatly reduced or completely absent, frequently lost or down-expressed 角色，起作用：role, part （limited, potential, early, possible role） 可能性：feasibility 密切地：intimately 难理解的，似谜的：enigmatic (x remains enigmatic)
前沿学术英语论文题目参考 学术英语即专家学者、教授学生在学术论文研究与写作中使用的英语，学术英语具有科学严谨性，用词考究，论文写作中应避免英语口语化。接下来跟着小编一起来看看学术英语论文题目有哪些。 1、浅议系统功能语言学理论指导下的英语专业学术论文摘要的翻译 2、“教学学术”视角下开放大学英语教师专业发展的思考 3、课程生态需求分析模式下的“学术英语”课程定位 4、CBI理论视域下学术英语读写教学研究 5、基于微课的通用学术英语写作课翻转课堂教学模式设计与实践 6、基于课堂读写任务的学术英语写作引用特征研究 7、基于语类的英语学术论文写作教学路径研究--以“文献综述”写作教学为例 8、基于需求分析学术英语教学模式 9、学术英语阅读能力的界定与培养 10、学术英语的词块教学法研究 11、英语专业本科毕业论文学术失范现象的成因与对策 12、浅析批判性思维下大学学术英语课程模块的构建
13、关于中文学术期刊使用英语的规范性问题 14、医学学术英语口语课程构建的探索 15、学术英语写作中词汇衔接探究 16、学习者学术英语写作中的引用行为研究 17、浅探理工院校学术英语改革实践 18、学术论文写作中的英语负迁移现象研究 19、学术英语写作教学体系的构建与实践 20、学术英语口头报告对批判性思维的影响探究 21、“学术读写素养”范式与学术英语写作课程设计 22、中国高校学术英语存在理论依据探索 23、学术英语教育对大学生就业的影响研究 24、学术道德教育和学术英语能力一体化培养 25、非英语专业研究生学术英语交际能力现状与对策研究--以延安大学为例 26、关于研究生学术英语教学定位研究 27、理工科学术英语视野下的批判性思维能力培植 28、面向学术英语的实验平台建构与探索 29、学术英语有效教学 30、学术英语写作课程环境下的写前计划效应探究 31、元话语视角下英语学术论文中的转述动词与语类结构研究 32、基于自建语料库的学术英语中语块结构的研究 33、以学术英语为新定位的大学英语教学转型问题的对策研究
英语语法大全 初中英语语法 学习提纲 一、词类、句子成分和构词法： 1、词类：英语词类分十种： 名词、形容词、代词、数词、冠词、动词、副词、介词、连词、感叹词。 1、名词(n.)：表示人、事物、地点或抽象概念的名称。如：boy, morning, bag, ball, class, orange. ：who, she, you, it . 主要用来代替名词。如)： 2、代词(pron.3、形容词(adj..)：表示人或事物的性质或特征。如：good, right, white, orange . 4、数词(num.)：表示数目或事物的顺序。如：one, two, three, first, second, third, fourth. 5、动词(v.)：表示动作或状态。如：am, is,are,have,see . 6、副词(adv.)：修饰动词、形容词或其他副词,说明时间、地点、程度等。如：now, very, here, often, quietly, slowly. 7、冠词(art..)：用在名词前,帮助说明名词。如：a, an, the. 8、介词(prep.)：表示它后面的名词或代词与其他句子成分的关系。如in, on, from, above, behind. 9、连词(conj.)：用来连接词、短语或句子。如and, but, before . 10、感叹词(interj..)表示喜、怒、哀、乐等感情。如：oh, well, hi, hello. 2、句子成分：英语句子成分分为七种：主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语、表语、宾语补足语。 1、主语是句子所要说的人或事物,回答是“谁”或者“什么”。通常用名词或代词担任。如：I'm Miss Green.(我是格林小姐) 2、谓语动词说明主语的动作或状态,回答“做(什么)”。主要由动词担任。如：Jack cleans the room every day. (杰克每天打扫房间) 3、表语在系动词之后,说明主语的身份或特征,回答是“什么”或者“怎么样”。通常由名词、 代词或形容词担任。如：My name is Ping ping .(我的名字叫萍萍) 4、宾语表示及物动词的对象或结果,回答做的是“什么”。通常由名词或代词担任。如：He can spell the word.(他能拼这个词) 有些及物动词带有两个宾语,一个指物,一个指人。指物的叫直接宾语,指人的叫间接宾语。间接 宾语一般放在直接宾语的前面。如：He wrote me a letter . (他给我写了 一封信) 有时可把介词to或for加在间接宾语前构成短语,放在直接宾语后面,来强调间接宾语。如：He wrote a letter to me . (他给我写了一封信)
难点17 独立主格结构 英语与汉语在表达习惯上有些不同，独立主格结构便是其中之一。独立主格结构是学习的难点。独立主格结构用作状语，多用来表示行为方式或伴随的情况，也可用来表示时间、原因、条件等。 ●难点磁场 1.(★★★★) ,they will go and visit the zoo. A.Weather permitting B.Weather permitted C.Weather being permitted D.Weather having permitted 2.(★★★★)The problem ,they all went home happily. A.settling B.to be settled C.settled D.to settle 3.(★★★★)A lot of work ,he had no time to talk with us. A.done B.to do C.doing D.to be doing ●案例探究 1.Everyone________ their seats,the meeting began. A.taken B.taking C.having taken D.to take 命题意图：此题考查独立主格结构作时间状语。此题属五星级题目。 知识依托：名词或代词+现在分词作状语，名词或代词就是分词的逻辑主语。 错解分析：A项taken为过去分词，它与逻辑主语之间逻辑上是被动关系，而此题中everyone与take their seats 应为主动关系。B项强调动作与句子谓语表示的动作同时发生，而此题中应是先就座，后开会，有明显的先后顺序。 解题方法与技巧：①everyone与take their seats是主动关系。 ②分词与句子谓语有明显先后顺序。分词应用过完成式。 答案：C 2.He stood there,his hands________ behind. A.tying B.tied C.were tying D.were tied 命题意图：此题旨在考查独立主格作方式状语。此题属四星级题目。 知识依托：“名词或代词+过去分词”作为独立主格结构作状语。名词/代词与过去分词构成逻辑上的被动关系。 错解分析：D项干扰性最强，但是若选D项，题干为两个独立的简单句，缺少连词，可把句子改为He stood there and his hands were tied behind. 解题方法与技巧：弄清楚名词与分词之间的逻辑关系。 答案：B 3.________,Mother had to stay at home and looked after him. A.Being ill B.He was ill C.Tom being ill D.To be ill 命题意图：此题考查独立主格结构作原因状语。此题属五星级题。 知识依托：名词或代词加现在分词构成的独立主格结构。 错解分析：干扰性最强的选项为A项，A项为现在分词短语作状语，其逻辑主语应是句子的主语Mother,那和“Mother had to…looked after him”意思不一致了。
天才是百分之九十九的勤奋加百分之一的灵感 弃我去者，昨日之日不可留 乱我心者，今日之日多烦忧 英语语法基础知识 第1课： 1、be（是）动词的用法：am接I；is接第三人称单数，即除you、I外；are接表示多个人或事物，即复数。（我是am，你是are，is连接它、她、他，单数is，复数are）。 2、not是表示否定的词：不是的表达，am not，is not（isn’t），are not（aren’t）。 3、“一个”和“几个”的问题：“一个”是a+名词；“多个”是名词后面加s。 4、以元音开头（如O、E等），前面的冠词用an。 第2课： 1、及物动词与不及物动词的区别：及物动词后面接宾语；而不及物动词后面不接宾语。如I like ice cream ，It hurts。 2、主语是he、she、it和单数名词时，动词要发生第三人称的变化，即加s。 3、否定的用法：在动词之前加do not或does not。I、You和复数名词做主语时，否定就用do not；凡是单数名称和he、she、it做主语，否定就用does not。 第3课 1、my（我的）、your（你的）、his（他的）、her（她的）、their（他们的）、our（我们的）、its（它的）+名词，如my love，your love 。 2、名词所有格形式为：名词+’s，表示“……的”，如Sophie’s world，children’s Day，Japan’s tomorrow。 3、用名词+of+名词，一般用在无生命的名词上，表示“……的’’，如The sound of music （音乐之声）。 第4课 1、“have”和“there be”翻译成汉语都可以用一个“有”字来表示，但have是指主观的“所有、拥有”，而there be则是指客观的“存在，某处有某物”。 2、There be的单复数变化与be的变化规则相同，取决于后面所接的主语。主语为单数，就变成there is，主语是复数，就变成there are。 3、“have”在第三人称单数时变成“has”。
第一部分语法框架 词类：名词、动词、形容词、副词、冠词、数词、介词、代词、连词 语句子成分：主、谓、宾，定、状、补，同位、表 法主语+谓语 句简主语+谓语+宾语 法单主语+谓语+宾语(间宾)+宾语(直宾) 按句主语+谓语+宾语+宾补 结主语+系动词+表语 构并列句：简单句+并列连词+简单句 分定语从句 复合句：主句+从句状语从句 句名主语从句 子词宾语从句 结性 构从同位语从句 句表语从句 陈述句：肯定句/否定句 按疑一般疑问句：将be/情态动词/助动词do/does/did/have/has/had移到主语前构成 语问特殊疑问句：特殊疑问词(what/when/where/why/which/how…)+一般疑问句 气句选择疑问句：一般疑问句+or+一般疑问句(通常省去与前句相同的内容) 分反义疑问句：前肯后否;前否后肯 祈使句：用于表达命令、请求、劝告、警告、禁止等，以动词原形开头 What +名词+主语+谓语! 感 What+形容词+名词+主语+谓语! 叹 How+形容词或副词+主语+谓语! 句 How +形容词+ a +单数可数名词+主语+谓语! How +主语+谓语! 第二部分词类 名词 Noun (n.) 专有名词 首字母大写的人名、地名、组织名、机构名等，如：Qi Baishi, New York, the USA 普通名词 可数名词 (单/复数) 个体名词：能分成单个独立个体的名词，如：pen, apple, student, tree 集体名词：由几个个体组成的小集体的名词，如：group, class, family
不可数名词 物质名词：不能分为个体的物质，通常为气体、液体，如：water, gas, air 抽象名词：不具体，看不见，莫不着的事物，如：advice, information 动词 Verb (v.) 实义动词/行为动词(具体动作的发出 ) 及物动词(vt.)：需要带宾语的动词，即：该类词后必须有名词、代词等可以作宾语的词，如：finish tasks, run(经营) a company, read a novel 不及物动词(vi.)：不需要带宾语的的动词，即：该类词后没有名词、代词等可以作宾语的词，如：He(主) runs(谓) quickly(状). 若要在不及物动词后接宾语，则需要加上相关介词，如：They arrived in London at 9 p.m. 情态动词 表示说话人语气和态度的词：can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must, need, ought to, dare。其后的动词用原形，“情动+动原”一起构成句子的谓语。 助动词 帮助构成时态、语态或改变句子结构的动词，如：be(am, is, are, was, were), have(has, had), do, does, did等。 第二部分 1.as...as...引导的比较级： (1)“as +形容词或副词原级+as+被比较对象”结构。例句： He studies as hard as you. 他像你一样学习努力。 (2)在否定句或疑问句中可用 not so…as…. 例句：He can notrun so/as fast as you. 他没你跑得快。 2.only引导的倒装句型：only +状语 (或状语从句)位于句首时，句子部分倒装。 例句： Only by diligence and honesty can one succeed inlife. 只有勤奋、正直，一个人在生活中才能成功。 注意：但 only修饰主语时，不倒装。例句： Onlythat girl knew how to work out the problem. 只有那位女生知道怎样解那道题。 3.wish引导的虚拟语气：wish 后面的从句，当表示与事实相反的情况，或表示将来不太可能实现的愿望时，其宾语从句的动词形式为： ⑴表示对现在情况的虚拟：从句动词用过去式或过去进行式表示，be 的过去式用were. I wish I knew the answer to the question. 我希望知道这个问题的答案。(可惜不知道。) ⑵表示对过去情况的虚拟：从句动词用had +过去分词。
专升本英语词汇和语法考点总结 词汇 一、名词和代词 一）重点名词和代词辨析 1、result，effect，outcome，ending，consequence，fruit result 普通用词，多指好的结果.另：比分，成绩；effect 名词：效果，影响。动词：实现；outcome 多指成就，成果；ending 结局，结尾；consequence 多指不良的结果，后果；fruit 水果，产物。 2、feature，appearance，virtue，character，characteristics feature 1，特色，2，面貌，相貌；appearance1，出现，露面2，外观，外貌，外表；virtue 1，美德，2，优点，长处；character特征，品质，角色；characteristics 特性，特色。 3、accident，incident，event，conflict，trouble，occurrence，crash，crisis accident 事故，意外。意想不到的事情，往往引起损伤或伤害；incident事件，小插曲。事变（外交，政治中的政变）；event 特指重大事件；conflict冲突，矛盾；trouble烦恼，麻烦；occurrence 1，发生，出现。2，突发事件；crash使(飞机)坠毁、使(车辆)猛撞等；crisis危机，紧急关头。 4、currency，income，wage，bonus，salary，award，reward，fee，allowance，honour，benefit，profit，interest，prize，wealth，capital，money，cash，coin,fund,debt,loan currency 流通货币，经济学用词；Income泛指收入；Wage 特指工资；Bonus指提成的奖金；Salary = wage + bonus 薪水；Award授予的奖项，包括奖励的奖金；Reward 回报，报酬，酬金；Fee泛指费用；Allowance 表示津贴，补贴；honour 荣誉，名誉。常用in honour of ，以….为纪念，向…表示敬意；benefit 名词：利益。动词：对….有益be benefit to；profit名词：1，好处，益处。2，利润。动词：有益于，有利于vt，及物动词；interest 名词：1，兴趣，爱好，2，利息。动词：对….感兴趣；prize 奖金，奖品；Wealth财产，财富。既可指金钱财富，也可指精神财富；Capital 可以是形容词和名词。1，形容词：大写的，首要的，首都的。
英语语法习题 目录 第一讲主谓一致 第二讲名词 第三讲代词 第四讲动词分类 第五讲动词时态 第六讲被动语态 第七讲虚拟语气 第八讲助动词 第九讲不定式 第十讲 V-ing形式 第十一讲 V-ed形式 第十二讲形容词／副词 第十三讲介词 第十四讲连词 第十五讲 It的用法 第十六讲定语从句 第十七讲名词性从句 第十八讲状语从句 第十九讲倒装句 第一讲主谓一致 I.学习重点 从句或非谓语动词作主语时的主谓一致 表示数量的名词词组作主语时的主谓一致 由连接词连接的主语与谓语的一致 集体名词作主语时的主谓一致 “主语+with/as well as 等短语”的主谓一致 Ⅱ．重点讲解 主语和谓语的一致主要指谓语动词必须和作主语的名词或人称代词在人称和数上保持一致。处理主谓一致关系主要遵循以下3条原则。①语法一致原则，即谓语的单、复数形式依主语的单、复数形式而定：主语为复数，谓语动词用复数；主语为单数或是不可数名词，谓语动词用单数。②就近一致原则，即谓语动词的人称和数要与它最邻近的名词或代词保持一致。 ③意义一致原则，即不以语法形式而从意义着眼处理一致关系，若主语形式上为复数，但意义上是单数，谓语动词需用单数；若主语形式上为单数，而意义上是复数，则谓语动词用复数。 Ⅲ、自测题 1．The committee ______(be) unable to agree on the policies．
2．The committee ______ (have) decided to give the workers more financial help．3．Why he entered the house and how he managed to get out of it without being seen by people ______ (remain) a mystery to us all． 4．Three years in a strange land ______(seem) like a long time． 5．He is one of those men who never ______(care) how they look． 6．Law and order ______(mean) different things to people with different political opinions． 7．She’s the only one of these women who ______ (play) bridge well． 8．After the exams ______(be) the time to relax． 9．War and peace ______(be) a constant theme in history． 10．How is it that your answer and your neighbour’s ______(be) identical? 11．If either of you ______(take) a vacation now,we will not be able to finish the work． 12．One third of the population ______(be) working in factories． 13．There ______(be) a bed and two sofas in the room． 14．What he left me ______(be) three small rooms. 15．The crowd at the basketball game ______(be) wild with excitement. 16．None of the students ______(have)finished the exam yet． 17．A large crowd of people ______(have) gathered under the Town Hall clock．18．All but he and I ______(be) going to the Exhibition． 19．Each soldier and sailor ______(be) given a gun． 20．Attending on campus concerts ______ (be) part of the pleasure of college life．21．There ______(be) more than one answer to your question． 22．A number of pages ______(be) found missing． 23．This is one of the books that ______(tell) an authentic story of World War Two．24．The cat with her kittens ______(be) sitting in the sun． 25．What ______(be) your weekly wages? 26．Bacon and eggs ______(make) a hearty breakfast for a growing boy．27．Dancing and skating ______(be) my chief delights． 28．Only one of the students who______(have) read the article can answer the question． 29．John is the only student who ______(have) read the book． 30．The number of secretaries in this company ______(be)never under 100．31．Five hundred dollars ______(be) spent yesterday. 32．It is I who ______(be) responsible for this. 33．To visit the parks and museums ______(be) really enjoyable． 34．Every word and phrase in this dictionary ______(be) important． 35．What he wants ______(be) a recorder and a radio． 36．There ______(be) many a reason why this book sells well． 37．What caused the damage of these cars ______(remain) unknown． 38．Two thirds of my friends ______(have) been abroad． 39．Two thirds of the crop ______(have) been damaged by the storm． 40．The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes ______(have) been translated into many languages． 41．A thousand miles no longer ______ much to us today,for modern jets can easily get us over this distance within a few hours． A)meant B)mean C)means D)will mean 42．It is reported that about two-thirds of the factory’s property _______ in the fire． A)are lost B)have been lost
再也不用愁SCI了，再也不愁论文中的英文怎么写了！！！英语学术论 文常用句型 英语学术论文常用句型 Beginning 1. In this paper, we focus on the need for 2. This paper proceeds as follow. 3. The structure of the paper is as follows. 4. In this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and related concepts 5. To begin with we will provide a brief background on the Introduction 1. This will be followed by a description of the fuzzy nature of the problem and a detailed presentation of how the required membership functions are defined. 2. Details on xx and xx are discussed in later sections. 3. In the next section, after a statement of the basic problem, various situations involving possibility
knowledge are investigated: first, an entirely possibility model is proposed; then the cases of a fuzzy service time with stochastic arrivals and non fuzzy service rule is studied; lastly, fuzzy service rule are considered. Review 1. This review is followed by an introduction. 2. A brief summary of some of the relevant concepts in xxx and xxx is presented in Section 2. 3. In the next section, a brief review of the .... is given. 4. In the next section, a short review of ... is given with special regard to ... 5. Section 2 reviews relevant research related to xx. 6. Section 1.1 briefly surveys the motivation for a methodology of action, while 1.2 looks at the difficulties posed by the complexity of systems and outlines the need for development of possibility methods.
第一部分：词法 中考考点一、名词 一、名词的复数： 1.名词变复数的规则形式 1).一般情况下直接加s book------books cup-----cups 2).以辅音字母+y结尾的，先变y为i再加es . city-------cities family-----families 3).以s、x、sh、ch结尾的加es . bus-----buses wish------wishes watch------wathes 4).以o结尾的多数加S 初中阶段只有三个单词加es . tomato-----tomatoes potato------potatoes hero-----heroes 5).以f、fe 结尾的，先把f、fe变v 再加es . leaf----leaves self---selves shelf----shelves life----lives thief---thieves 2.少数名词的复数形式是不规则的。 man----men woman---women child----children foot-----feet tooth----teeth mouse---mice 3.单数和复数形式相同。 deer---deer fish----fish sheep----sheep Chinese ----Chinese Japanese---Japanese 4.某国人的复数。 1). 中、日不变。Chinese----Chinese Japanese---Japanese 2). 英、法变。 Englishman----Englishmen Frenchman----Frenchmen 3). 其余s加后面。 American -----Americans German----Germans Australian---Australians 二、不可数名词： 1.不可数名词： 1).不能直接用数字表数量 2).不能直接加a或an 3).没有复数形式 4).可用some、any 、lots of、plenty of 、much 修饰 5).可用“量词短语”表示 2.不可数名词的数量的表示方法： a / 数字+ 量词 + of + 不可数名词 a piece of paper a cup of tea a glass of milk 三、名词的所有格： 1. ’s 所有格。 1).用and连接两个并列的单数名词表示共有关系时，这时只在最后一个名词后加“’s.”
1. individuals, characters, folks 替换people , persons. 2. positive, favorable, rosy, promising, perfect, pleasurable, excellent, outstanding, superior 替换good. rosy ；adj. 蔷薇色的，玫瑰红色的；美好的；乐观的；涨红脸的 3. dreadful, unfavorable, poor, adverse, ill 替换bad（如果bad做表语，可以有be less impressive 替换。） Adverse；adj. 不利的；相反的；敌对的（名词adverseness，副词adversely） 4. an army of, an ocean of, a sea of, a multitude of, a host of, if not most 替换many. if not most:即使不是大多数 5. a slice of, quite a few 替换some. a slice of:一片，一份 6. harbor the idea that, take the attitude that, hold the view that, it is widely shared that, it is universally acknowledged that 替换think。 harbor v/n庇护；怀有 7. affair, business, matter 替换thing. 8. shared 替换common . 9. reap huge fruits 替换get many benefits. 10. for my part ,from my own perspective 替换in my opinion. 11. Increasing, growing 替换more and more（注意没有growingly这种形式。所以当修饰名词时用increasing/growing修饰形容词，副词用increasingly.） 12. little if anything或little or nothing 替换hardly. 13. beneficial, rewarding 替换helpful. 14. shopper, client, consumer, purchaser 替换customer. 15. overwhelmingly, exceedingly, extremely, intensely 替换very. 16. hardly necessary, hardly inevitable…替换unnecessary, avoidable. 17. indispensable 替换necessary. 18. sth appeals to sb., sth. exerts a tremendous fascination on sb 替换sb. take interest in / sb. be interested in. 19. capture one's attention 替换attract one's attention. 20. facet, dimension, sphere 替换aspect. 21. be indicative of, be suggestive of, be fearful of 替换indicate, suggest, fear. 22. give rise to, lead to, result in, trigger 替换cause. 23. There are several reasons behind sth. 替换…reasons for sth. 24. desire 替换want. 25. pour attention into 替换pay attention to. 26. bear in mind that 替换remember. 27. enjoy, possess 替换have（注意process是过程的意思）。 28. interaction 替换communication. 29. frown on sth 替换be against , disagree with sth. 30. as an example 替换for example, for instance. 31. next to / virtually impossible 替换nearly / almost impossible. 32. regarding / concerning 替换about. 33. crucial /paramount 替换important. 34. 第一（in the first place/the first and foremost）；
英文版通用学术英语论文格式样张 封面页
主要内容页 The Researches on Rs Method for Discrete Membership Functions ---------------subtitle(副标题12号字加黑右对齐) （空一行） ZHANG Xiaoya, LI Dexiang (题目14号字加黑居中) School of Management, Dalian University, P.R.China,116622 (10 号字居中) yuanfengxiangsheng@https://www.doczj.com/doc/0e14828566.html, (10号字加黑) (空一行) Abstract Mizumoto used to advance a fuzzy reasoning method ,Rs, which fits the…… Key words IDSS, Fuzzy reasoning,……号字) (空一行) 1 Introduction (一级标题12号字加黑) We know that the approaches of implementation of intelligent decision support systems(IDSS)have become variable……(正文均用10号字) (空一行) 2 An Example According to the definition of Rs, we can construct the fuzzy relation matrix, as shown in table 1 Table 1 A Fuzzy Relation Rs (9号字加黑居中) U2U3 U10.00 0.10 0.40 0.70…… 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 …… 0.20 0.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 ……(表中用9号字) .….. ………………… (空一行)Figure 1 Functions of……(9号字加黑居中) 3 The Improved Method (空一行) 3.1 Method one (二级标题10号字加黑) ………… 3.1.1 Discussing about method one (三级标题10号字) ………… （空一行） 3.2 Method two…………