Translation(英->汉)
Unit 1
1.当今的大学生，尽管他们努力地想使自己成才，但对未来还是很模糊的。（establish
oneself）
Today's university students are struggling to establish themselves, but they still have
ambiguous feelings about their future.
2.一个人如果不能找到自我以外的中心，就不能实现他的自我价值。所以，理想的本科教
育必须使学生超越自我。（transcend）
A man cannot find himself without finding a center beyond him. So the idealism of the
undergraduate experience must help the student transcend himself.
3.我们强烈地希望在大学所学到的知识在今后的工作与学习中能起到重要的作用。（reveal
oneself）
We eagerly hope that the lessons learned in the university will reveal themselves in our
performance in the workplace and further education.
4.四年的本科学习是走向成功生活的唯一道路，这种说法是无法接受的。（go
unchallenged）
It cannot go unchallenged to say that the 4-year undergraduate experience is the only path to success in life.
5.在对一个关键的问题作结论时，如果只相信所谓的专家而不相信自己，不根据调查的结
果，不根据实验的数据，那是在冒险。（run the risk of; blind faith in）
We run the risk of making critical decisions, not on the basis of what we know, the findings of investigations, and the data of experiments, but on the basis of blind faith in professed
experts.
6.我们的事业需要一批受过良好教育又能关心他人的年轻人，他们能团结一致，相互学习，
积极参加四化建设。（band together; participate in）
Our task needs a large group of well-informed, caring young people who can band together, learn from each other, and actively participate in the four modernizations.
7.如果这所新学校要有生命力的话，它培养的学生不仅要有扎实的基础和熟练的专业技
能，还要有奉献精神。(be to endure; commit oneself)
If it is to endure, the new school should help the students not only acquire a sold basic
education and become competent in a specific field, but also be ready to commit
themselves to others.
8.如果大学生对考试过于投入，就有可能把能力与奉献放到次要的地位，这样说一点也不
过分。（push to the fringes）
It is not too much to say that if undergraduates excessively devote themselves to
examinations, the will push competence and commitment to the fringes.
9.我甚至没有跟他说话，当然更不用说与他讨论有关你们学校的改建问题。（much less）
I didn’t even speak to him; much less discuss the reconstruction of your school with him.
10.有人认为考试是很重要的，但也有人认为考试有不少弊端。所以考试留下了一个未能解
决的问题—考试对教育有什么影响？（open question）
Some people think examinations are second to none, but some think examinations have a lot of disadvantages. Examinations leave us an open essential question—what influence do examinations exert on education?
Unit 2
1.他不但是位出色的银行家和公认的贸易专家，而且还是位经验丰富的企业主管。（not to
mention）
He is an experienced banker and an acknowledged trade expert, not to mention an excellent managing director.
2.意大利一个和平组织的志愿者不顾危险，已开赴伊拉克首都巴格达，组成“人体盾牌”，
以阻止美国轰炸该地。（regardless of）
Regardless of danger, volunteers from an Italian organization for peace have gone to Baghdad, the capital of Iraq, to form a “body shield”for the purpose of preventing the US from bombing the place.
3.在这个家庭里，没有人比朱蒂更能致力于经营房地产生意。（be dedicated to）
Nobody in the family is more dedicated to operating the real estate business than Judy.
4.由于经济不景气，房地产经纪人正处于或降低房价或减少销售量的两难境地。（dilemma）
Because of the economic depression, real estate agents are in the dilemma of whether to lower prices or let sales fall off.
5.史密斯先生往往靠慎重投资而获取巨额利润。（more often than not）
More often than not, Mr. Smith earns great profits by careful investment of his capital.
6.约翰在学校里各门功课的成绩都不怎么样，但在体育方面倒是身手不凡。（excel at）
John did not make much of a mark in his studies at school, but he excelled at sports.
7.有条不紊的职责交接是家庭企业长期繁荣的一个条件。（transition; long-range ）
Orderly transition of responsibilities is a condition for the long-range prosperity of a family business.
8.在制定投资计划之前，你最好对投资前景有个清楚的了解。（have a clear picture of）
You had better have a clear picture of prospects before formulating a plan for investment. 9.尽管雕塑费时，但是仍有一些人以雕塑为职业。（time-consuming）
Although sculpture is a time-consuming art, there are still some people following it as a profession.
10.这家电脑软件公司正处于从独资经营到合资经营的转化过程中。（in the midst of）
The software company is in the midst of being transformed from an individual proprietorship to a joint venture.
Unit 3
1.汽车诞生后发展很快，不久就替代了马。（displace）
The automobile was improved very rapidly after it was invented and soon displaced horses.
2.由于汽车污染环境并严重伤害人体，甚至杀人，我们可能不得不消减私人拥有汽车的数
量而更多地依赖公共交通系统。（mass transit systems）
We may have to cut down on the number of privately owned cars and depend more on public mass transit systems because cars pollute and maim or even kill people.
3.汽车轮子给我们带来了更好、更为便利的交通时，它也应对诸如空气污染、交通事故、
交通拥挤之类的许多问题负责。（be guilty of）
While wheels (automobiles) have brought with them better or more convenient transportation, they are guilty of many sins, such as air pollution, traffic accidents and traffic congestion.
4.美国人对汽车的热爱以及他们较大的工作流动性是出了名的。（be noted for）
Americans are noted for their love for cars and great job mobility.
5.要是燃料质量和效率的提高和技术的进步能大大减少汽车的排放量，那该多好啊。（if
only）
If only advances in fuel quality and efficiency and in technology would radically reduce the emissions from automobiles.
6.在美国，高度发达的公路网使在各地之间来来往往成为可能。（from coast to coast）
A highly developed highway network has made possible the easy movement from coast to
coast in the United States.
7.一想到这条林荫大道的建设速度，参观者都感到很吃惊：这条路不久前还在开挖及铺设
排水管。（the very thought of, tear up）
The very thought of the speed at which the beautiful avenue was constructed electrified every visitor; the road had only recently been torn up to lay drain-pipes not long ago.
8.环境保护主义者严厉谴责了汽车，认为汽车是产生空气污染的主要因素。（denounce）
Environmentalists have denounced automobiles, believing they are a major factor in the production of dirty air.
9.由于有便利的公共交通，在大都市的市郊，许多新建的住宅群拔地而起。（rise up,
complex）
Many new residential complexes have risen up in the suburbs of metropolitan cities because of the availability of convenient public transportation.
10.尽管非常喜欢汽车，许多人还是相信广泛地使用公共交通系统能缓解交通拥挤。（lend
credence to）
Despite their love for cars, many people lend credence to the extensive use of the public transport system, which can cut down on traffic congestion.
Unit 4
1.一些职业观察家认为，现在的年轻人不再对政治和事业感兴趣；他们越来越关注与他们
自身关系更为密切的问题。（preoccupied with）
Some professional observers believe that young people today are no longer interested in politics and causes, but rather, have become increasingly preoccupied with issues closer to themselves.
2.一个妇女所获得的教育程度越高，就越有可能走出小家庭这个环境，到社会上去实现自
我。（be likely to, realize oneself）
The higher a woman’s educational attainment, the more likely she is to go out of the private setting of the nuclear family and to realize herself in the community.
3.就我而言，一些已婚夫妇作出选择不要小孩的真正原因是他们非常自恋，以致于他们没
有多余的爱给别人。（start a family, lie behind, have no margin of, spare）
As far as I am concerned, what really lies behind the decision of some married couples not to start a family is that they are so narcissistic and have no margin of love to spare others.
4.这家公司甚至在未求证发明人同意的情况下，就将其一项注册过的新发明投放市场。这
一行为违反了专利法。（go against）
The company put on the market a registered invention even without asking the inventor’s permission, which goes against the patent law.
5.在一些国家的敦促下，联合国对该国施加压力，迫使其放弃研制和使用核武器。（pressure
sb to do ）
Urged by some other countries, the United Nations has pressured the country to give up developing and using nuclear weapons.
6.按照每个会员必须是无子女的这一规定，怀特先生及其太太只好退出Non-Parent协会，
因为他们很快就要当父母了。（alternative, parenthood）
According to the rule that every member should remain childless, Mr. And Ms white have no alternative but to withdraw from the Non-Parent Association, for they will attain parenthood soon.
7.他期望通过上演一部肥皂剧来揭示现实生活所固有的复杂性。(implicit)
He expects to reveal, by presenting a soap opera, the complexity implicit in real life.
8.几乎在每个国家，嗜用麻醉品、酗酒和摧残儿童都有变为最令人深思的社会问题的趋势。
（loom as）
In virtually every country, drug abuse, alcohol abuse and child abuse loon as most challenging social problems.
9.在接受采访时，这些老年人合理地解释了为什么会对当今青年人产生矛盾心理的原因。
(be ambivalent about, rationalize)
When interviewed, these elderly people rationalized why they were ambivalent about today’s young people.
10.不少大学生更关心怎样在毕业后谋得一份报酬优厚的工作，怎样在这个充满竞争的社会
里迅速得到提升。(be concerned with)
Many college students are far more concerned with how to get a highly-paid job on graduation and how to receive a quick promotion in the competitive society.
Unit 5
1.总的来说，人变得越来越有同情心；不少家庭收养了来自市孤儿院的孤儿。（take in,
orphanage）
Generally, people have become more compassionate and quite a few families have taken in an orphan from the municipal orphanage.
2.一个有工作的妇女既要照顾她的孩子和老人，又要设法保有这份工作，是一件非常困难
的事情。（hold down）
It is a demanding task for a workingwoman to look after her parents and her children while holding down a job.
3.起先，我们对他们初次在异国他乡生活感到担忧，但是结果他们在那个国家生活得相当
不错。（work out）
At first we were worried about their first stay in a foreign country but things there worked out much better for them..
4.今天，中年人的孩子比他们父母的孩子要少得多；40年后人口老化问题可能成为他们
孩子的沉重负担。（weigh on）
Today's middle-aged people have fewer children than their parents did and the aging population problem may weigh on them in about 40 years.
5.希望目前的教育改革能为学生更好地迎接社会的挑战作好准备。(set up)
It is hoped that the current reform in education will better set students up to meet the challenges from society.
6.政府想把一部分健康护理的负担转嫁给个人；但是家庭成员并不总是有空的，因为他们
不能离开工作来照顾生病的老人。(break away from )
The government intends to transfer some of the health-care burden to the individual family but family members are not always available for the task because they cannot break away from their jobs to look after the sick elderly.
7.对养老院床位的需求越来越大，我们不得不想尽一切办法腾出床位。（free up）
There is an increasing demand for beds in the nursing home, and we have to try every possible means to free them up.
8.随着该国老年人的日益增多，为了医疗保障和养老金提供资金可能使政府感到恐惧。
(scare the devil out of)
With the large elderly population in this country, financing of health care and pensions could care the devil out of the government.
9.这对年轻夫妇不得不作出牺牲，以避免使他们年迈的慈父伤心。(let down )
The young couple has to make some sacrifice to avoid letting their old beloved father down. 10.他们在照顾年迈多病的老父时所经历的一切使他们更具有同情心并向养老院捐了款。
(go through)
What they had gone through in looking after their sick old father made them more compassionate, and they made a donation to the nursing home.
Choose
Unit 1
When today’s high-school seniors are asked what they plan to do after graduation most say that they intend to get a bachelor’s degree. They have been told that their generation has only “one way to win” ---by getting at least a bachelor’s degree, in the hope that it will eventually lead to a professional job.
In a recent survey of high-school seniors conducted by the National Center for Education Statistics, 85 percent of the respondents said they planned to get a bachelor’s degree. And, although 20 years ago only 45 per cent of high-school graduates went on to college, today 68 per cent actually matriculate(注册), with the majority enrolling in four-year or two-year programs designed to allow them to transfer to four-year institutions.
According to conventional wisdom, the rapid rise in the number of students attending college is cause for national celebration. But our research suggests that, instead, it may be cause for national concern. Why?Because for many young people, the “one way to win” paradigm(例子) is not realistic, given their academic talents and the labor-market projections. Students ranking below the top third of their high-school graduating class too often fail to earn a bachelor’s degree if they enroll in college. The cost of such failure ---in both dollars and unmet expectations--- is rising and beginning to erode public confidence in our system of higher education.
Unit 2
A small family-owned company, Eisai, was one of the original manufacturers of vitamin E, and it maintained a strong research commitment to natural pharmaceuticals. Over the years, it developed drugs for the treatment of cardiovascular, respiratory, and neurological diseases. The company experienced steady, modest growth, and in 1992 sales reached 197 billion yen and profits approached13 billion yen. Although it was the sixth-largest Japanese pharmaceutical company, Eisai was a relatively small player in an industry in which global competition was increasing while growth in the domestic market was slowing down..
In 1993, Haruo Naito took over as president from his father. Before that, he had chaired Eisai’s five-year strategic planning committee. During that time, he had become convinced that the company’s focus on the discovery and manufacture of pharmaceuticals was not sustainable for long-term growth against large, global competitors. Two years after becoming president, Naito
formulated a radical new vision for Eisai that he called Human Health Care. It extended the company’s focus from manufacturing drug treatments for specific illness to improving the overall quality of life. To accomplish that mission, Eisai developed a wide array of new products. And that, in turn, would require broad involvement and commitment. He encouraged innovative activity and created an environment in which employee s’efforts would be accepted and rewarded.Soon there proposals for 130 additional HHC projects and by the end of 1996, 73 projects were under way. Now, the company has moved from sixth to fifth place in the Japanese domestic pharmaceutical industry, and Eisai’s customers and competitors view the company as a leader in health care.
Unit 3
Today it can be said that wheels run America. The four rubber tires of the automobile move America through work and pay. Wheels spin, and people drive off to their jobs. Tires turn, and people shop for the week’s food at the big supermarket down the highway. Hubcaps whirl, and the whole family spends a day at the lake. Each year more wheels crowd the highways as 10 million new cars roll out of the factories. One out of every six Americans works at assembling cars, driving trucks, building roads, or pumping gas. America without cars? It’s unthinkable.
But even though the majority of Americans would find it hard to imagine what life would be like without a car, some have begun to realize that the automobile is a mixed blessing. Traffic accidents are increasing steadily, and large cities are plagued by traffic congestion. Worst of all, perhaps, is the air pollution caused by the internal –combustion engine. Every car engine burns hundreds of gallons of fuel each year and pumps hundreds of pounds of carbon monoxide and other gases into the air. These gases are one source of the smog that hangs over large cities. Some of these gases are poisonous and dangerous to one’s health, especially for someone with a weak heart or a respiratory disease.
One answer to the problem of air pollution is to build a car that does not pollute. That’s what several major automobile manufacturers are trying to do. But building a clean car is easier said than done. So far, progress has been slow. Another solution is to eliminate car fume altogether by getting rid of the internal-combustion engine. Inventors are now working on turbine-powered cars, as well as on cars powered by steam and electricity. But most of us won’t be driving cars run on batteries or boiling water for a while yet. Many auto makers believe that it will take years to develop practical models that are powered by electricity or steam.
Unit 4
Children are now leaving home in late adolescence--- an earlier age than in the past. Adolescents are no longer involved in making economic contribution to the family. In fact, their major economic impact is as consumers. Therefore, the family has little reason to keep the child home as an economic contribution. It is becoming increasingly common for young people to leave home for college or to live with someone else when they become employed. Not only do families have fewer children but they have them in school and out of the home at younger ages than in the past.
The most surprising findings with regard to children show a negative impaction on marriage due to children. There has been much evidence that children contribute greater conflict and uncertainty in a marriage. Studies show that general life satisfaction is the highest for people when they are young, married, and childless. Other studies show that American couples with children at home tend to have lower marital satisfaction than those without children. For both men
and women, reports of happiness and satisfaction drop ---and don’t rise again until the children are grown and about to leave the nest.
Unit 5
In the world’s rich countries, when you retire at 65 you can expect to live, on average, for another 15 or 20 years,. A hundred years ago you would, on average, have been already dead. The late 20th century has brought to many the ultimate gift: the luxury of aging. But like any luxury, aging is expensive. Governments are fretting about(苦恼) the cost already; but they also know that far worse is to come: Over the next 30 or 40 years, the demographic changes of longer lives and fewer births will force most countries to rethink in fundamental ways their arrangements for paying for and looking after older people.
In 1990 18% of people in OECD countries were aged over 60. by 2030 that figure will have risen to over 30%. The share of the “Oldest old”( those over 80), now around 3%, is set to double. The vast majority of these older people will be consumers, not producers.Thanks to state transfers, being old in developed countries mostly no longer means being poor. The old people will expect decent pensions to live on; they will make heavy demands on medical services, and some will need expensive nursing care. Yet while their numbers are expanding fast, numbers of people at work---who will have to foot the bill ---will stay much the same, so each worker will have to carry a heavier burden.
Mass survival to a ripe old age will not be confined to rich countries. Most developing countries, whose populations are now much younger than the developed worlds’, are starting to age fast.
英- 中
Unit 1
Citizens have tried with similar bafflement to follow the debate over Star Wars, with its highly technical jargon of deterrence and counterdeterrence.
类似的一头雾水的感觉，公众曾经曾试过。当他们试图弄懂有关“星球大战”的辩论的问题时，那些关于“威慑”与“反威慑”等高科技的专业术语，曾让公众一筹莫展。
What we need today are groups of well-informed, caring individuals who band together in the spirit of community to learn from one another, to participate, as citizens, in the democratic process.
我们的民主社会需要一批受过良好教育、关心他人的年轻人群策群力，本着共同的信念，团结在一起，相互学习，参与到社会民主的建设之中。
We are beginning to understand that hunger and human rights affect alliances as decisively as weapons and treaties.
我们开始知道饥饿和人权如同战争条约一样对人类的联盟有着重要的影响。
We need concerned people who are participants in inquiry, who know how to ask the right questions, who understand the process by which public policy is shaped, and are prepared to make informed,discriminating judgments on questions that affect the future.
民主的社会需要关心民主社会的公众，需要他们成为善于发问的民主参与者，成为知道怎样提出恰如其分的问题的人，知道公共政策的决策形成过程，并能够对那些影响深远的问题做出敏锐的、有见地的判断。
If the undergraduate college cannot help students see beyond themselves and better understand the interdependent nature of our world, each new generation will remain ignorant, and its capacity to live confidently and responsibly will be dangerously diminished.
如果大学教育不能帮助学生认识自我，超越自我，不能让他们更好地理解世界相互依存的本质特征，那么新生的一代就会变得无知，他们生活的信心及生活的责任将慢慢被消磨殆尽，及至危险的境地。
What kind of nation will we be if we cannot even commit ourselves to other people, much less to a set of abstract values?... What kinds of politicians will we elect if self-interest is our highest value, humanity an “ inoperative” commodity?
如果我们连奉献于人的精神都缺乏的话，更不用说一套一套的抽象的价值观念，难以想象我们的民族将会是什么样子。如果说自身利益是我们崇尚的最高价值观念，人性只是一件无利可图的商品，那么我们将会选择什么样的政治人物呢？？？
This imperative does not replace the need for rigorous study in the disciplines, but neither must specialization become an excuse to suspend judgment or diminish the search for purposeful life objectives.
这一非同寻常的任务并不否定学生在专业学习上必须付出努力，但选择学习任何一类专业都不应成为他们中断明辨事理能力培养的理由，也不应该成为葬送其探求人类生活的终极关怀的这一过程的理由。
Unit 2
All three, however, do not work equal hours, nor are they all dedicated to the business. Instead of benefiting from the equality, there is discord and resentment in the company because only one child really works.
然而，这个三个小孩并没有花同等的时间工作，也不是都致力于公司的业务。由于只有一个小孩在真正地工作，在公司内部就有了争吵和怨恨，平等对待并没有带来好处。However, if you do determine that a child will carry on the business, you should be sure your choice is capable.
然后，如果你真的决定让一个小孩来接管企业，你应该确定你所选择的小孩是有能力接管公司的。
Outside job experience is extremely useful for children who will one day assume control. Working outside the family business can give them valuable experience, expose them to differing management styles and give them the confidence to know that their successes are their own. Often they will receive better mentoring and more opportunities to take responsibility than they would in the family business. Proving themselves outside the family business also gives children greater credibility with employees when they do eventually take control of the family business.
对于将来要接管公司的孩子来说，在外面的工作经验是相当有用的。在家族企业之外的工作会让他们获得有价值的经验，接触不同的管理方式，给他们信心让他们了解到他们的成功是属于他们自己的。通常他们会比在家族企业里得到更好的锻炼和更多担当职责的机会。在家族企业之外证实自己的价值也会最终使得他们在接管家族企业时能够让雇员们对他们产生更多的信任度。
Unit 3
The Duke of Wellington, brilliant on the battlefield but noted for his disdain for the great unwashed, opposed the development of the British railway system 150 years ago because trains would “only encourage the common people to move around needlessly”
在战场上有过辉煌，但却以鄙视下层民众而出名的威林顿公爵在150年前就曾反对英国发展铁路，这是因为火车只会怂恿普通人毫无意义地到处走动。
While the automobile is surely guilty of many sins, its critics choose to ignore that it has been
the great liberator, permitting monumental population shifts, city to suburb, east to west, south to north and, more recently, north back to south, as millions of citizens sought improved economic opportunities. Sprawling new metropolitan complexes—Los Angeles, Orlando, Atlanta, Charlotte, Dallas, Las Vegas, Phoenix---have risen up based on layouts that accommodate the auto. The configurations have not been perfect(nor have the mass transit alternatives), but the fact remains that massive growth is being enjoyed by southern and western cities built around cars. While environmentalists fret, the multitudes drive on.
的确，汽车应该对出现的许多问题负责，然后，汽车也是伟大的解放者。批评家们却宁愿对这一事实视而不见。汽车可以使人口大规模地流动：从城市到郊区，从东部到西部，从南方到北方。而近来更多的人又从北方回到南方，因为数以百万人希望找到改善经济状况的机会。一片片蔓延无矩的大都市建筑群拔地而起---洛杉矶、奥兰多、亚特兰大、夏洛特、达拉斯、拉斯维加斯、菲尼克斯等等，其规划都是以适应汽车的需要为出发点。这样的规划并不完美（若代之以适应公共交通的规划也完美不起来），但实际状况仍然是：南部到西部环绕汽车兴建的城市正在飞跃发展。环境保护主义者在担忧，大多数人却照样开着车。
It offers such freedom that, short of a total redesign of the nation’s cities and the completely banning of autos from vast areas of the nation, the automobile will remain integral to modern life. It might be that even if every last mile of pavement were torn up, every last parking garage leveled, every last service station closed, the automobile would change into a more adaptable form and continue as the essential provider of individual transport.
汽车提供的自由如此之大，乃至于在现代生活中不可或缺，除非重新设计全国的城市，在广袤的国土上全面禁止使用汽车。很可能，即使把油柏路统统毁掉，把停车场统统铲平，把加油站统统关闭，汽车仍会变得适应性更强，继续成为个人的主要交通工具。
How best to integrate it into a global ecosystem with finite resources is a question that may not be easy to solve, but the first step might be to acknowledge that like it or hate it, the automobile is here to stay.
如何使汽车最有效地融入资源有限的全球生态系统之中也许是个棘手的问题。但不管你乐意不乐意，也许第一步是要承认汽车的存在。
作文
摘要( abstract) 也称为内容提要，通常在学术论文中都必须附有摘要，其位子应放在论文的正文之前，对整个论文内容的概述。无论对专业读者还是对非专业读者而言，摘要都是一个非常重要的文件。
摘要如果和论文一起发表，则被称为一次性出版物摘要，主要用于帮助读者评价文章内容及其潜在作用，使读者不必阅读全文就可以了解论文的内容。除此之外，摘要也可以被单独收入文摘机构出版的摘要期刊如：生物学文摘(Biological Abstract)、化学文摘（Chemical Abstract）等，称为二次性出版物摘要。此类脱离论文独立成篇的摘要主要用于方便读者检索文摘、收集信息，帮助研究者寻找新的研究领域。
1.1 摘要的定义
摘要的英文术语：有两个词汇，一个是 abstract, 一个是 summary
根据美国国家标准学会 ( American National Standards Institute ) 于1971年通过并颁布的《美国国家文摘写作标准》（American National Standards for Writing Abstracts）规定，abstract 不应与 summary 混同。
Abstract 对一篇论文的主要内容以精炼的文字进行高度概括，使读者不必阅读论文全文即可迅速了解论文内容，或者让读者对即将阅读的文章有思想准备，或者让读者判断是否
有通读全文的必要。文中只对论文信息进行浓缩，而不加主管评论或解释，可以脱离原文而独立成篇。字数通常在100 – 150 个词左右，更确切地说，约为原文长度的1% - 5%(有的杂志规定摘要平均为全文的 3% - 5% )。现在越来越多的用法是 abstract。尤其是放在索引资料中一律要用abstract 这个术语，在论文的题目下也通常要用这个词。
Summary (概要) 与 abstract 无明显差别。严格地说，summary 一般附在论文的后面，对论文的主要结论和成果进行再叙述。其前提是读者已经通读的全文，通过summary 来巩固论文的主要论点和成果。在某些论文中，用summary取代正文中的conclusion部分。Summary是论文的“缩影”，可以概括论文的全部内容，只是在删繁就简上下功夫，字数长短不一，少则两三句话，多则500个单词甚至更长.美国的一些高校规定,说是论文提要(summary)以250词左右为宜，而博士论文提要以350词左右为宜。博士会议论文的提要一般规定为300 – 500词或1000个印刷符号。
至于究竟采用什么形式，要根据征稿简则而定。一般说来，国际学术会议论文集要求按Summary方式来写摘要，而正式出版发行的刊物要求不禁一致。对于个别论文还见有前面为Abstract,结尾又有一个Summary，这多半是由于文章过长，内容又多，后面的Summary相当于该文的缩写。
1.2 摘要的种类
摘要分为两类，一类是说明性摘要(Descriptive/Indicative Abstract),一类是资料性摘要（Informative Abstract）。
1.2.1 说明性摘要(Descriptive/Indicative Abstract)
如同迈克尔.艾利（Michael Alley）所说，“一篇说明性摘要是段落形式的目录，是读者手中的一份简要地图。”从这句话中可以清楚地了解说明性摘要的作用。说明性摘要只向读者指出论文的主要议题是什么，不涉及具体的研究方法和结果，但无法给读者提供更多的详细信息。它一般是用于综述性文章，也用于讨论、评论性文章，尤以介绍某学科近期发展动态的论文居多。常出现“…is studied”, “…is investigated”, “…is discussed”字样。时态多用现在时或现在完成时。其篇幅也较短，大多在100-150字之间。以下是一篇说明性摘要的样例：
Ten widespread diseases that are hazards in isolated construction camps can be prevented by removing or destroying the breeding places of flies, mosquitoes and rats, and by killing their adult forms.
由于说明性摘要仅限于陈述论文的主要议题且篇幅较小，主要用于评述性论文。
1.2.2 资料性摘要（Informative Abstract）
资料性摘要适用于专题研究论文和实验报告型论文。
资料性摘要的优点是比说明性摘要能提供多得多的信息，它应该尽量完整和准确地体现原文的具体内容，特别要强调指出研究的方法和结果，结论等。其篇幅较长，大多在150-250字之间。根据原文长度，也有多达500字的。通常，这一类的摘要反映了论文的基本面貌，能够代替阅读论文全文。
Ten widespread diseases that are hazards in isolated construction camps can be prevented by removing or destroying the breeding places of flies, mosquitoes and rats, and by killing their adult forms. The breeding of flies is controlled by proper disposal of decaying organic matter, and of mosquitoes by destroying or draining pools, or spraying them with oil. For rats, only the indirect methods of rat-resistant houses and protected food supplies are valuable. Control of adult forms of both insects and rodents requires use of poisons. Screens are used for insects. Minnows can be planted to eat mosquito larvae.
1.3 如何写摘要
1.3.1 摘要的位置
摘要的位置是确定的，一般在作者工作单位的下方。如：
Cultural Differences Between China and U.S.A. (标题)
Xu Ying (署名)
Hunan University （Changsha，Hunan， 410082）（工作单位）
Abstract: （摘要）
Key words: (关键词)
1.3.2 写作要点
1. 长度：有专家认为150-200个词之间；文章长度的五分之一。
有些刊物会规定摘要的篇幅不能超过一定的字数，如：在80-100之间，再投稿应查询。
若刊物没有规定长度时，可参阅已发表的文章长度。
参加国际会议的论文摘要有字数限制，一般要求200-500个词之间，约1000个印刷符号。（美国化学文献、医学文献的论文摘要规定在200个词以内。）
2. 不要重复论文中的句子。
3. 避免例举大堆数据。
4. 一般只是一个段落，不要将其分为数段。
5. 不要使用祈使句、感叹句、公式、表格等。
6. 完成论文后再写摘要。
7. 一般使用第三人称或被动语态。
8. 语言需简明扼要。
下面请看一篇论文摘要
This paper deals with the English syllabus for graduate students in China. The paper first reviews the history of the graduate English teaching, then discusses the shortcomings in the syllabus and finally proposes some suggestions for its revision.
Key words: syllabus, graduate English teaching
阅读下面文章，然后写出一段80个词左右的摘要。最后再参阅提供的英语摘要。
These days, there is a common belief among parents that schools are no longer taking any notice of students’ spelling. But, no school I have taught in has ever ignored spelling or considered it unimportant as a basic skill. There are, however, vastly different ideas about how to teach it, or how much importance it must be given over general language development and writing ability. The problem is , how to encourage a child to express himself freely and confidently in writing without holding him back with the complexities of spelling.
If spelling becomes the only focal point of his teacher’s interest, clearly a bright child will be likely to “play safe”. He will tend to write only words within his spelling range, choose to avoid adventurous language. That’s why teachers often encourage the early use of dictionaries and pay attention to content rather than technical ability.
I was once shocked to read on the bottom of a sensitive piece of writing about
a personal experience. “This work is terrible! There are too many spelling errors and your writing is hard to read.”It may have been a sharp criticism of the pupil’s technical abilities in writing, but it was a sad remark from the teacher who had
omitted to read the essay, which contained some beautiful expressions of the child’s deep feelings. The teacher was not wrong to draw attention to the errors, but if his attention had centered on the child’s ideas, an expression of his disappointment with the presentation would have given the pupil more motivation to seek improvement.
1.3.3 摘要的内容
摘要的写作必须准确、明晰、简洁，概述与细节描述之间需要相互平衡，相互补充。内容取舍的标准首先是对论文本身重点的理解，其次应该考虑到读者阅读的方式。资料性摘要的内容通常包括：
1. 背景知识或文献回顾（Background Information / Literature Review）
2. 研究的主要目的和范围 (Principal Purpose)
3. 研究方法（Methodology）
4. 研究的主要结果（Results）
5. 结论和建议（Conclusions and Recommendation）
例1：
This article discusses some possible roles for self-access pathways, particularly in cultures which have no tradition of self-study. It suggests how pathways might influence the design and running of self-access centre, and gives an illustration of how pathways were designed and employed in a centre in China. Feedback is based on a mini-survey distributed to thirty users.
( ELT Joural Vol.51/1 January 1997 Oxford Univ. Press, 1997)
例2：
The science taught in the classroom should be reasonably up-to – date. What is taught should place emphasis first on the principles and major concepts of science rather than on the applications of scientific knowledge. The instructional techniques comprise laboratory work which is introduced in such a manner as to emphasize science as a process--- to reveal through practice that science involves inquiry, discovery, and experimentation. The paper suggests that college science programs should be revised with a view to preparing teachers to handle science in secondary and elementary schools.
1.3.4 常用表达方法
描述目的，介绍相关知识
描述观察角度：
a. …from the angle of …
b. … in the light of the context that …
c. to view something at a different angle / from various angles
d. from the point of view of …
e. from the perspective of …
描绘方法：
a. Detailed information has been acquired by the authors using …
b. This is theory based on the idea that …
c. Several sets of experiments have been performed to test the validity of …
d. The method used in our study is known as …
e. The technique the author adopted is referred to as …
f. The approach taken in the investigation is called …
g. The experiments consisted of four steps, which are described in …
描述结果：
a. The results show / indicate that …
b. The results are as follows:
c. The analysis of the samples indicates that …
d. We found that …
e. Data suggested that …
f. It is shown that …
g. Based on / upon the outcome
findings
results of the research ,
h. the author
i. the results / findings / observations have shown that …
j. The outcome has proved that …
k. The data obtained seem to be very similar to those reported earlier by …
描述结论：
a. In conclusion, the result shows …
b. To sum up, we have revealed …
c. It can be concluded / acknowledged that …
d. The examination / investigation proves that …
e. In summing up it may be stated that …
f. All the preliminary results throw light on the nature of …
g. These findings of the research have naturally led the author to the conclusion that …
Read the following passages first and then write an abstract of 60 to 80 words. Passage One
The use of the word “imitation” reminds me that I should make some more comments on the risk of people imitating what they see on TV in the Way of crime of violence. First there was always a risk of children acting out according to what they saw from a TV program, which could be dangerous. For example I remember a woman who was a head of a primary school telling me that she had happened to look out of her window when the children were in the playground and had seen them putting a small boy on a chair with a rope round his neck under the branch of a tree; fortunately she was in time to stop them before the child was hanged. I remember a film of no particular merit in which the hero who was imprisoned had escaped by killing his guard, the technique of doing shown in detail. This was the kind of scene which we should cut for the reasons.
In films for young people and adults we always tried to keep off the screen any details of criminal techniques, such as how to open a locked door with a piece of wire, or how to open a safe; if we were consulted before production I used to advise that the details should not be shown. When I gave talks in prisons about film censorship I invariably had full support for this; since fathers who were in prison for criminal offenses did not want their children to embark on crime.
Every time I gave a talk in a prison someone used to mention the French film Rififi made by Jules Dassin in 1954. This remarkable film showed in great detail a robbery of a jeweler’s shop, the robbery sequence lasting about half an hour and being backed only by natural sound --- one of the most brilliant film sequences of all time. I remember our discussions at the time. We took into account the fact that the robbery was accomplished only with the use of elaborate and obviously expensive equipment, and that only the most experienced and skilled criminals could possibly imitate it; we believed therefore that it was relatively safe. When talking in prisons some years later I learned that there had been several robberies in which the techniques had been copied, so perhaps we were wrong.
Passage Two
We have recently heard a great deal about the bad effects of computers on our social and economic organizations. In industry, computers mean automation, and automation means unemployment. Computers in the United States have already begun to displace workers whose tasks are simple. The variety of jobs, formerly done only by humans, that the machine can perform more rapidly, accurately, and economically, increases with each new generation of computers. If we follow this trend, we will be faced with mass unemployment for all but a handful of highly trained professionals, who will then be more powerful and overworked than they are now.
What can we do about it? It is foolish to dream of reversing history. We cannot pass laws forbidding the advancement of science and technology. The computing machines are here, and they will grow because engineers want to build them, and politicians want their help in the process of government. In short, they will develop and become popular because they enable us to complete tasks that could never before have been undertaken, no matter how many unskilled laborers we might have set to work. Computers will continue to increase our intelligence for just the same reason that engines continue to strengthen our muscles. The question we must ask in not whether we shall have computers or not have computers, but rather, since we are going to have them, how we can make the most human and intelligent use of them.
一、1.若已知工质的绝对压力P=，环境压力Pa=，则测得的压差为(B)A.真空pv= B.表压力pg=.真空pv= D.表压力p g= 2.简单可压缩热力系的准平衡过程中工质压力降低，则(A) A.技术功为正 B.技术功为负 C.体积功为正 D.体积功为负 3.理想气体可逆定温过程的特点是(B)=0 =>W
南京航空航天大学 2014年硕士研究生入学考试初试试题（ A 卷 ） 科目代码: 817 满分: 150 分 科目名称: 工程热力学 注意: ①认真阅读答题纸上的注意事项；②所有答案必须写在答题纸上，写在本试题纸或草稿纸上均无 效；③本试题纸须随答题纸一起装入试题袋中交回！ 一、 简答题（共55分） 1、 （5分）工质经历正向循环，其熵变大于零；经历逆向循环，其熵变小于零。该说法正 确吗？简要说明理由。 2、 （5分）如何理解准平衡过程就是“过程进行得很慢，驰豫时间很短的过程”？ 3、 （5分）由理想气体混合物分压力及分体积的定义可推断：i i pV V p = 。该推断成立吗？ 简要说明理由。 4、 （8分）在冬季，室外空气条件相同的情况下，A 房屋顶有结霜现象，而B 房屋顶则无 结霜现象，试分析产生此现象可能的原因。 5、 （8分）喷管内有摩擦阻力时，其出口的流速、流量、焓、比体积、温度、熵与无摩擦 阻力（等熵过程）时有何区别(假定进出口压力降相同，工质为理想气体)？ 6、 （8分）与理想气体比较，实际气体的两个最大特点是什么？试推导范德瓦尔气体在定 温膨胀时所作的膨胀功。（2m m V a b V RT p --= ） 7、 (8分)若未饱和湿空气被等容冷却到其中水蒸气刚开始凝结的温度v T ，问此温度比露点 温度d T 高还是低？为什么？（要求借助水蒸气p-v 图加以说明） 8、(8分)如图所示，循环1-2-3-4-1和循环1-2-3’-6-1均为燃气轮机装置中的理想定压循环， 循环1-2-3-6-1为在理想极限条件下采用定温膨胀的燃气轮机循环，在没有回热的情况下，试比较三个循环的循环热效率大小，简单说明理由。
一、分析说明题： 1、水汽化过程的P-V 与T-S 图上：1点、2线、3区、5态，分别指的是什么？ 答：1点：临界点2线：上界线（干饱和蒸汽线）、下界线（饱和水线）3区：过冷区（液相区或未饱和区）、湿蒸汽区（汽液两相区）、过热蒸汽区（气相区）5态：未饱和水、饱和水、湿饱和蒸汽、干饱和蒸汽、过热蒸汽 2、什么样的的气体可以看成是理想气体？ 答：①分子之间的平均距离相当大，分子的体积与气体的总体积相比可以忽略。②分子之间没有相互的作用力。 ③分子之间的相互碰撞及分子与器壁之间的碰撞均为弹性碰撞。 3、画图分析蒸汽初温及初压的变化对郎肯循环的影响。 ①蒸汽初温的影响： 保持p 1、p 2不变，将t 1提高，2t 1 T 1T η=- 则有：1T ↑，2T 不变?t η↑ 且乏汽干度：2'2x x > ②蒸汽初压的影响： 保持t 1、 p 2不变，提高p 1，2t 1 T 1T η=- 则有：1T ↑，2T 不变?t η↑ 但是乏汽干度：2'2x x < 4、什么叫逆向循环或制冷循环？逆向循环的经济性用什么衡量？其表达式是什么？ 答：在循环中消耗机械能，把热量从低温热源传向高温热源的循环称为逆向循环或制冷循环。或者在P-V 图和T-S 图上以顺时针方向进行的循环。 逆向循环的经济性评价指标有：制冷系数；ε =q 2/W net ；热泵系数：ε ′ =q 1/W net 5、简述绝对压强、相对压强及真空度之间的关系。 答：①当绝对压强大于当地大气压时： 相对压强（表压强）=绝对压强-当地大气压 或 当地绝表P P P -= ②当绝对压强小于当地大气压时：真空度=当地大气压-绝对压强 或 绝当地真空P P P -= 6、绝热刚性容器中间用隔板分开，两侧分别有1kg N 2和O 2，其p 1、T 1相同。若将隔板抽出，则混合前后的温度和熵有什么变化，为什么？ 答: ①因为是刚性绝热容器，所以系统与外界之间既没有热量交换也没有功量交换。②系统内部的隔板抽出后，温度保持不变。③绝热过程系统熵流为零，系统内部为不可逆变化，熵产大于零，因此总熵变大于零。 7、表压力或真空度能否作为状态参数进行热力计算？若工质的压力不变，问测量其压力的压力表或真空计的读数是否 可能变化？ 答：①表压力或真空度不能作为状态参数进行热力计算，因为表压力或真空度只是一个相对压力。 ②若工质的压力不变，测量其压力的压力表或真空计的读数可能变化，因为测量所处的环境压力可能发生变化。
2010江苏大学硕士研究生入学测试工程热力学(附答案) 一、名词解释：（20分） 1、多变过程： 2、临界点： 3、滞止焓： 4、相对湿度： 5、干度： 二、是非判断题：（正确地打“√”；错误的打“×”，并加以改正。）（20分） 1、工质从状态1变化到状态2，不论中间经历了什么过程，其熵的变化都相等。 2、用100℃的热源非常缓慢地给冰、水混合物加热，混合物经历的是准静态过程。该加热过 程是可逆过程。 3、任何燃气轮机装置都可以通过回热的措施提高其热效率。 4、沸腾的水总是烫手的。 5、压气机的绝热压缩过程，由于无散热损失，所以在压力升高比一定的条件下，所消耗的 功最小。 6、空气的湿球温度总是低于干球温度。 7、水蒸气的定压气化过程，由于温度不变，所以内能不变。 8、处于热力学平衡状态的系统必然是一个均匀系统。 9、两杯温度不同的水，在等压下进行绝热混合，其熵不变。 10、一绝热容器中间有隔板分开，一侧装有空气，另一侧为真空，现抽去隔板，由于空气经 历了绝热膨胀过程，所以温度下降。 三、选择题：（21分） 1、下列说法正确的是。 （a）工质对外作出膨胀功，就一定吸热； （b）吸热过程一定升温； （c）要使工质升温，就一定通过加热的方式实现； （d）工质体积膨胀，是使热变功的的根本途径。 2、某实验报告称，温度为800K、压力为6Mpa的燃气进入燃气轮机，在燃气轮机内绝热膨 胀后流出燃气轮机。在燃气轮机出口测得的数据是：p2 = 0.9Mpa，T2= 450K，则该过程
是 。( 1.004/.0.2874/.)p g c kJ kg K R kJ kg K == （a ）可逆的 （b ）不可逆的 （c ）不可能实现的 3、某制冷循环中，工质从温度为－73℃的冷源吸热100kJ ，并将220kJ 的热量传递给温度为27℃的热源，则此循环为 。 （a ）可逆循环 （b ）不可逆循环 （c ）不可能实现 4、工质经历了一个放热、升温、压力增加的多变过程，该过程多变指数的范围是 。 （a ）01n << （b ）1n k << （c ）n k > （d ）0n < 5、系统经历了一个不可逆的放热过程，在该过程中，外界对系统作功150 kJ ，系统放热100kJ ，则系统的熵的变化 。 （a ）0S ?< （b ）0S ?> （c ）0S ?= （d ）无法判别 6、热力学第一定律和第二定律表明，对于实际热力过程 。 （a ）能量守恒，可用能也守恒 （b ）能量守恒，可用能增加 （c ）能量守恒，可用能减少 （d ）能量减少，可用能也减少 7、空气在渐缩形喷管中作一元、定熵流动，已知进口状态T 1=300K 、p 1=5bar 、c f1=100m/s ，背压p b =1bar ，则喷管出口 。 （a ） 21p p β> （b ）21p p β< （c ）21 p p β= （d ）2b p p = 三、分析题：（37分） 1、试推导理想气体定压比热c p 和定容比热c v 关系式 ：c p －c v = R g 。（5分） 2、燃气轮机理想简单循环的废气排气温度高达400～500℃，废气排放到大气中的余热很为可观，因此，有人提出下述三种方案，试分析是否有效，为什么？ （1）、将燃气轮机出口的排气送入另一个透平作功； （2）、将排气送入压气机升压后在送入透平作功； （3）、将排气送入回热器，预热压气机前的空气。（10分） 3、试根据下列条件在无其他动力源的情况下，设计出两种低温余热利用装置的方案，并比
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页脚内容 6 及内能的变化，并画出p-v 图，比较两种压缩过程功量的大小。（空气： p c =1.004kJ/(kgK)，R=0.287kJ/(kgK)）（20分） 2．某热机在T1=1800K 和T2=450K 的热源间进行卡诺循环，若工质从热源吸热1000KJ ，试计算：（A ）循环的最大功？（B ）如果工质在吸热过程中与高温热源的温差为100K ，在过程中与低温热源的温差为50K ，则该热量中能转变为多少功？热效率是多少？（C ）如果循环过程中，不仅存在传热温差，并由于摩擦使循环功减小10KJ ，则热机的热效率是多少？（14分） 3．已知气体燃烧产物的cp=1.089kJ/kg ·K 和k=1.36，并以流量m=45kg/s 流经一喷管，进口p1=1bar 、T1=1100K 、c1=1800m/s 。喷管出口气体的压力p2=0.343bar ，喷管的流量系数cd=0.96；喷管效率为 =0.88。求合适的喉部截 面积、喷管出口的截面积和出口温度。（空气：p c =1.004kJ/(kgK)， R=0.287kJ/(kgK)）（20分） 一．是非题（10分） 1、√ 2、√ 3、× 4、× 5、√ 6、× 7、× 8、√ 9、×10、√ 二．选择题（10分） 1、B2、C3、B4、B5、A 三．填空题（10分） 1、功W;内能U 2、定温变化过程，定熵变化 3、小，大，0 4、对数曲线，对数曲线 5、 a kpv kRT ==， c M a = 四、名词解释（每题2分，共8分） 孤立系统：系统与外界之间不发生任何能量传递和物质交换的系统。 焓：为简化计算，将流动工质传递的总能量中，取决于工质的热力状态的那部分能量，写在一起，引入一新的物理量，称为焓。 热力学第二定律：克劳修斯(Clausius)说法：不可能把热量从低温物体传到高温物体而不引起其他变化。开尔文一浦朗克(Kelvin —Plank)说法：不可能制造只从一个热源取热使之完全变成机械能而不引起其他变化的循环发动机。 相对湿度：湿空气的绝对湿度v ρ与同温度下饱和空气的饱和绝对湿度s ρ的比值， 称为相对湿度?。 五简答题（8分）
非全日制硕士研究生招生院校 政策改革后，双证在职研究生更名为了非全日制硕士研究生。非全日制硕士研究生是和全日制研究生一起考试的，考试科目都是一样的，所以考试难度是比较大的。但是非全日制硕士研究生毕业后可以获得双证，所以受到了很多在职人员的青睐。那么，非全日制硕士研究生招生院校有哪些呢? 1、中国政法大学工商管理硕士(MBA) 中国政法大学SMBA学员按照教学计划进行MBA核心课的学习，如学员考试(考核)成绩合格，修满学分，即可获得结业证书，符合条件的学员在三年内通过MBA联考，已获得的学分可被认可，成为正式MBA学员，毕业后颁发MBA双证。 2、首都经济贸易大学公共管理硕士(MPA) 首都经济贸易大学公共管理(SMPA)在职研究生，学费42000元，学制2年，参加完联考并录取之后，在规定期限内完成培养方案和教学计划，并取得合格成绩和学分，符合毕业条件的学生，可获得研究生学历证书和公共管理(MPA)硕士学位。 3、北京化工大学工程管理硕士(MEM) 北京化工大学招生工程管理专业(SMEM)在职研究生，学费20000元，学制1年，利用周末时间授课。成绩合格颁发北京化工大学结业证书。符合条件者可申请全国研究生管理联考，可颁发研究生毕业证书和硕士学位。
4、对外经济贸易大学金融硕士(FM) 对外招生金融学专业(互联网金融与财富管理方向)学员，学费29800元，学制2年，学员可通过五月同等学力申硕方式获得硕士学位，也可以参加一月份金融专硕(MF)考试,最后获得金融专硕毕业证书和学位证书双证，但两种申硕方式只能选择一种渠道。 通过以上的介绍，相信大家对非全日制硕士研究生招生院校有了一定的了解，想要报考的人员一定要选择适合自己的院校和专业报考。 附：在职研究生热门招生院校推荐表
一.就是非题 1.两种湿空气的相对湿度相等,则吸收水蒸汽的能力也相等。() 2.闭口系统进行一放热过程,其熵一定减少() 3.容器中气体的压力不变,则压力表的读数也绝对不会改变。() 4.理想气体在绝热容器中作自由膨胀,则气体温度与压力的表达式为 k k p p T T 11212-??? ? ??=() 5.对所研究的各种热力现象都可以按闭口系统、开口系统或孤立系统进行分析,其结果与所取系统的形式无关。() 6.工质在相同的初、终态之间进行可逆与不可逆过程,则工质熵的变化就是一样的。() 7.对于过热水蒸气,干度1>x () 8.对于渐缩喷管,若气流的初参数一定,那么随着背压的降低,流量将增大,但最多增大到临界流量。() 9.膨胀功、流动功与技术功都就是与过程的路径有关的过程量() 10.已知露点温度d t 、含湿量d 即能确定湿空气的状态。() 二.选择题(10分) 1.如果热机从热源吸热100kJ,对外作功100kJ,则()。 (A)违反热力学第一定律;(B)违反热力学第二定律; (C)不违反第一、第二定律;(D)A 与B 。 2.压力为10bar 的气体通过渐缩喷管流入1bar 的环境中,现将喷管尾部截去一小段,其流速、流量变化为()。 A 流速减小,流量不变(B)流速不变,流量增加 C 流速不变,流量不变(D)流速减小,流量增大 3.系统在可逆过程中与外界传递的热量,其数值大小取决于()。 (A)系统的初、终态;(B)系统所经历的过程; (C)(A)与(B);(D)系统的熵变。 4.不断对密闭刚性容器中的汽水混合物加热之后,其结果只能就是()。 (A)全部水变成水蒸汽(B)部分水变成水蒸汽 (C)部分或全部水变成水蒸汽(D)不能确定 5.()过程就是可逆过程。 (A)、可以从终态回复到初态的(B)、没有摩擦的 (C)、没有摩擦的准静态过程(D)、没有温差的 三.填空题(10分) 1.理想气体多变过程中,工质放热压缩升温的多变指数的范围_________ 2.蒸汽的干度定义为_________。 3.水蒸汽的汽化潜热在低温时较__________,在高温时较__________,在临界温度为__________。 4.理想气体的多变比热公式为_________ 5.采用Z 级冷却的压气机,其最佳压力比公式为_________ 四、名词解释(每题2分,共8分) 1.卡诺定理: 2..理想气体 3.水蒸气的汽化潜热 5.含湿量 五简答题(8分) 1、证明绝热过程方程式 2、已知房间内湿空气的d t 、wet t 温度,试用H —d 图定性的确定湿空气状态。 六.计算题(共54分) 1.质量为2kg 的某理想气体,在可逆多变过程中,压力从0、5MPa 降至0、1MPa,温度从162℃降至27℃,作出膨胀功267kJ,从外界吸收热量66、8kJ 。试求该理想气体的定 值比热容p c 与V c [kJ/(kg ·K)],并将此多变过程表示在v p -图与s T -图上(图上 先画出4个基本热力过程线)。(14分) 2.某蒸汽动力循环。汽轮机进口蒸汽参数为p1=13、5bar,t1=370℃,汽轮机出口蒸汽参数为p2=0、08bar 的干饱与蒸汽,设环境温度t0=20℃,试求:汽轮机的实际功量、理想功量、相对内效率(15分) 3.压气机产生压力为6bar,流量为20kg/s 的压缩空气,已知压气机进口状态1p =1bar,1t =20℃,如为不可逆绝热压缩,实际消耗功就是理论轴功的1、 15倍,求压气 机出口温度2t 及实际消耗功率P 。(已知:空气p c =1、004kJ/(kgK),气体常数R=0、287kJ/(kgK))。(15分) 4.一卡诺循环,已知两热源的温度t1=527℃、T2=27℃,循环吸热量Q1=2500KJ,试求:(A)循环的作功量。(B)排放给冷源的热量及冷源熵的增加。(10分) 一.就是非题(10分) 1、× 2、× 3、× 4、√ 5、√ 6、× 7、× 8、√ 9、×10、× 二.选择题(10分) 1、B 2、A3、A4、A5、C 三.填空题(10分)
1．湿蒸汽的状态参数p,t,v,x 中，不相互独立的一对是（D ）D ．(p,t)2．在不可逆循环中（B ）A ． ??>?ds T q B ． ??t w >t C ．t DP =t w =t D ．t w > t DP >t 6．如果孤系内发生的过程都是可逆过程，则系统的熵（C ） A ．增大 B ．减小 C ．不变 D ．可能增大，也可能减小21．理想气体的可逆过程方程式=n pv 常数，当n ＝ ∞ 时，即为等体过程。 7．pdv dT c q v +=δ适用于（A ）A ．可逆过程，理想气体 B ．不可逆过程，理想气体 C ．可逆过程，实际气体 D ．不可逆过程，实际气体 8．电厂蒸汽动力循环回热是为了（C ）A ．提高循环初参数 B ．降低循环终参数C ．提高平均吸热温度 D ．提高汽轮机的相对内效率 9．活塞式压气机采取分级压缩（ C ）A ．能省功 B ．不能省功 C ．不一定省功 D ．增压比大时省功 10．理想情况下活塞式压气机余隙体积的增大，将使生产1kg 压缩空气的耗功量（C ）A 增大 B ．减小C ．不变 D ．的变化视具体压缩空气的耗功量 11．下列各项中，不影响燃烧过程热效应的是（C ）A ．反应物的种类 B ．反应温度C ．反应速度D ．反应压力 12．欲使亚声速气流加速到超声速气流应采用（C ）A ．渐缩喷管B ．渐扩喷管C ．缩放喷管D ．前后压差较大直管 13．水蒸汽h －s 图上定压线（C ．在湿蒸汽区是直线，在过热蒸汽区是曲线 14．为提高空气压缩制冷循环的制冷系数，可以采取的措施是（D ） A ．增大空气流量 B ．提高增压比C ．减小空气流量 D ．降低增压比 15．在范德瓦尔方程中，常数b 为考虑气体 而引入的修 正项。（C ）A 分子间内位能 B ．分子运动动能C ．分子本身体积D ．分子间相互作用力 二、多项选择题16．理想气体可逆等温过程的体积变化功w 等于（AC ）A ．2 1 p p RT ln B ．1 2p p RT ln C ．1 2v v RT ln D ．2 1v v RT ln E ．(p 2v 2－p 1v 1) 17．vdp dh q －=δ适用于 AC A ．可逆过程，理想气体 B ．不可逆过程，理想气体 C ．可逆过程，实际气体D ．不可逆过程，实际气体 E ．任意过程，任意气体 18．再热压力若选得合适，将使（BCDE ） A ．汽耗率提高 B ．热耗率提高 C ．循环热效率提高 D ．排汽干度提高 E ．平均吸热温度提高 19．马赫数小于1的气流可逆绝热地流过缩放管时，如果把喷管的渐扩段尾部切去一段，在其他条件不变的情况下，其（BDE ）A ．流量变小B ．流量不变 C ．流量变大 D ．出口压力变大E ．出口速度变大 20．不可逆循环的热效率（BE ） A ．低于可逆循环的热效率 B ．在相同的高温热源和低温热源间低于可逆循环的热效率 C ．高于可逆循环的热效率 D ．在相同的高温热源和低温热源间高于可逆循环的热效率 E ．可能高于，也可能低于可逆循环的热效率 三、填空题 22．在一定的压力下，当液体温度达到 饱和 时，继续加热，立即出现强烈的汽化现象。 23．湿空气的绝对温度是指lm 3湿空气中所含水蒸汽的 质 量 。 24．火电厂常用的加热器有表面式和 混合 式。 25．可逆绝热地压缩空气时，无论是活塞式压气机还是叶轮式压气机，气体在压气机内的 状态变化 规律是相同的。 26．理想气体的绝热节流效应是 零效应 。 27．利用平均比热表计算任意体积气体在定压过程中的吸热量时，应使用公式 Q ＝V 0 )t |c -t |(c 1t 0'p 2t 0'p 1 2?? 。 28．图示通用压缩子图上一状态点A ，其位置表明： 在该状态下气体分子之间的相互作用力 主要表现为 排斥 力。
同济大学《工程热力学》期末模拟试卷 第一部分 选择题（共15分） 一、单项选择题（本大题共15小题，每题只有一个正确答案，答对一题得1分，共15分） 1、压力为10 bar 的气体通过渐缩喷管流入1 bar 的环境中，现将喷管尾部截去一段， 其流速、流量变化为。 【 】 A.流速减小，流量不变 B.流速不变，流量增加 C.流速不变，流量不变 D.流速减小，流量增大 2、某制冷机在热源T 1= 300K ，及冷源T 2= 250K 之间工作，其制冷量为1000 KJ ，消耗功为250 KJ ，此制冷机是 【 】 A.可逆的 B.不可逆的 C.不可能的 D.可逆或不可逆的 3、系统的总储存能为 【 】 A. U B. U pV + C. 2/2f U mc mgz ++ D. 2 /2f U pV mc mgz +++ 4、熵变计算式2121(/)(/)p g s c In T T R In p p ?=-只适用于 【 】 A.一切工质的可逆过程 B.一切工质的不可逆过程 C.理想气体的可逆过程 D.理想气体的一切过程 5、系统进行一个不可逆绝热膨胀过程后，欲使系统回复到初态，系统需要进行一个【】过 程 。 【 】
A.可逆绝热压缩 B.不可逆绝热压缩 C.边压缩边吸热 D.边压缩边放热 6、混合气体的通用气体常数，【】。【】 A.与混合气体的成份有关 B.与混合气体的质量有关 C.与混合气体所处状态有关 D.与混合气体的成份、质量及状态均无关系 7、贮有空气的绝热刚性密闭容器中装有电热丝，通电后如取空气为系统，则【】 A.Q＞0，△U＞0，W＞0 B.Q=0，△U＞0，W＞0 C.Q＞0，△U＞0，W=0 D.Q=0，△U=0，W=0 8、未饱和空气具有下列关系【】 A.t＞t w＞t d B.t＞t d＞t w. C.t = t d = t w D.t = t w＞t d 9、绝热节流过程是【】过程。【】 A.定压 B.定温 C.定熵 D.节流前后焓相等 10、抽汽式热电循环的结果是【】 A.提高循环热效率，提高热能利用率 B.提高循环热效率，降低热能利用率 C.降低循环热效率，提高热能利用率 D.降低循环热效率，降低热能利用率 11、一个橡皮气球在太阳下被照晒，气球在吸热过程中膨胀，气球内的压力正比于气球的容积，则气球内的气球进行的是【】 A.定压过程 B.多变过程 C.定温过程 D.定容过程 12、气体的容积比热是指【】
拿下考研政治只需要这两点 很多人私信小编问“2018年的政治研究生”的题型包括哪些方面，小编为了满足大家，就为大家实力分析一波，其实答案已经初见端倪，只是大家没有注意到，那我们就结合今年的考题看看是不是这样的。 纵观2017年的一月研究生整套试卷，一个最突出的特点，就是紧扣社会热点、围绕学科重点。下面我们就结合真题来看一下是不是这样。对于2016年来说，热点问题有很多：五大发展理念、供给侧改革、十八届六中全会、中国共产党成立95周年、长征胜利80周年、孙中山诞辰150周年、“一带一路”、农村土地制度的改革、G20等等，这些热点在试卷上基本都有体现。比如第6题考查的就是供给侧改革的目的;第8题就考查了农村土地制度的改革;第22题考查到了中国共产党成立95周年习近平讲话;第23题考查到了“一带一路”;第25题考查了五大发展理念;第26题考查十八届六中全会关于从严治党的问题;第28题考查了孙中山诞辰150周年;第36题考查了长征胜利80周年，如何理解长征永远在路上;第38题考查了G20杭州峰会;等等。所以，考研政治一定是迎着热点上的。那么对于要准备2018年考研的学生来说，明年复习的重点仍旧是围绕当年发生的重大事件去做准备，其中的重要考点及如何结合社会热点去做准备，我们会在万学海文的各种课程里给大家一网打尽。 对于重点问题，2017考研政治也没有回避。比如马原理考查的就是马克思主义哲学的重点——认识论;毛中特考查的就是五位一体布局中的经济建设和“四个全面”;近现代史考查的就是中国共产党的探索史;思修法基考查的是思修
中的重点——思想修养和道德修养。所以对要准备2018年考研的学生来说，明年复习的重点除了热点问题以外，就是每一门课程的重点部分。下面我就对各门课程的重点做一简介： 马克思主义基本原理主要包括马克思主义哲学、政治经济学和科学社会主义三部分。重点是马克思主义哲学，它又包括四大板块：唯物论、辩证法、认识论、唯物史观。重点是辩证法和认识论，因为这两部分是出分析题的重点。辩证法部分的内容历年都是命题的密集区，考点最多，在各种类型题中都出现过;其中“对立统一规律”是历年命题的重中之重，从2006年一直到2012年连续7年分析题都考“对立统一规律”。认识论的重点是“实践和认识”、“真理和价值”，也是经常命制选择和分析题的。 毛中特的重点是第八章中国特色社会主义建设理论，又叫“五位一体”理论，主要包括建设中国特色社会主义经济、建设中国特色社会主义政治、建设中国特色社会主义文化、建设社会主义和谐社会、建设社会主义生态文明。这几年毛中特部分的分析题主要是从这部分命制，如2015年考查的是基本经济制度，2016年考查的生态文明，2017年考查的是经济建设的精准扶贫。而且在考研政治的五大学科中毛中特是与中央精神联系得最紧密的学科，所以同学们在备考的时候一定要紧跟习近平及其重要讲话，答题的时候一定要紧扣中央精神。 近现代史纲要的重点是第四章到第七章，是中国共产党领导中国人民的探索抗争，最后取得民族独立和人民解放的过程，是最能体现历史纲要命题主旨的内容。历史纲要命题主旨就是历史和人民为什么最终选择马克思主义、为什么选择
一．是非题 1．两种湿空气的相对湿度相等，则吸收水蒸汽的能力也相等。（ ） 2．闭口系统进行一放热过程，其熵一定减少（ ） 3．容器中气体的压力不变，则压力表的读数也绝对不会改变。（ ） 4．理想气体在绝热容器中作自由膨胀，则气体温度与压力的表达式为 k k p p T T 11212-??? ? ??= （ ） 5．对所研究的各种热力现象都可以按闭口系统、开口系统或孤立系统进行分析，其结果与所取系统的形式无关。 （ ） 6．工质在相同的初、终态之间进行可逆与不可逆过程，则工质熵的变化是一样的。 （ ） 7．对于过热水蒸气，干度1>x （ ） 8．对于渐缩喷管，若气流的初参数一定，那么随着背压的降低，流量将增大，但最多增大到临界流量。（ ） 9．膨胀功、流动功和技术功都是与过程的路径有关的过程量 （ ） # 10．已知露点温度d t 、含湿量d 即能确定湿空气的状态。 （ ） 二．选择题 （10分） 1．如果热机从热源吸热100kJ ，对外作功100kJ ，则（ ）。 （A ） 违反热力学第一定律； （B ） 违反热力学第二定律； （C ） 不违反第一、第二定律；（D ） A 和B 。 2．压力为10 bar 的气体通过渐缩喷管流入1 bar 的环境中，现将喷管尾部截去一小段，其流速、流量变化为（ ）。 （A ） 流速减小，流量不变 （B ）流速不变，流量增加 （C ） 流速不变，流量不变 （D ） 流速减小，流量增大 3．系统在可逆过程中与外界传递的热量，其数值大小取决于（ ）。 （A ） 系统的初、终态； （B ） 系统所经历的过程； [ （C ） （A ）和（B ）； （ D ） 系统的熵变。 4．不断对密闭刚性容器中的汽水混合物加热之后，其结果只能是（ ）。 （A ）全部水变成水蒸汽 （B ）部分水变成水蒸汽 （C ）部分或全部水变成水蒸汽 （D ）不能确定 5．（ ）过程是可逆过程。 （A ）.可以从终态回复到初态的 （B ）.没有摩擦的 （C ）.没有摩擦的准静态过程 （D ）.没有温差的 三．填空题 （10分） 1．理想气体多变过程中，工质放热压缩升温的多变指数的范围_________
工程热力学考研大纲 一、参考书目: 工程热力学A《工程热力学》童钧耕主编，高等教育出版社，2007年 二、基本要求: 1．理解和掌握热力学的基本概念和热力学的宏观研究方法，能够运用基本概念，针对实际问题的特点选取热力系统，列出简化条件，并进行功和热量的计算； 2．掌握热力学第一定律、第二定律的实质，对闭口系和开口系统进行热力过程的分析和计算，并能用状态坐标图表示过程及能量转换的特点； 3．掌握运用理想气体、水蒸气、湿空气等常用工质的热力性质图表及公式进行热力过程的分析和计算； 4．掌握提高能量利用率的基本原则和主要途径。把实际热工设备的工作过程简化成理想热力循环或热力过程，应用第一、第二定律对循环或过程进行分析和计算。 三、主要知识点 第一章基本概念热力系统，状态及平衡状态，状态参数及其特性，参数坐标图，热力过程及准静态过程，热力循环 第二章热力学第一定律闭口系热力学第一定律解析式，热力学第一定律应用于开口系统，稳定流动能量方程式，焓，技术功，能量方程应用 第三章理想气体及其混合物理想气体状态方程及气体常数，理想气体的比热，理想气体的内能、焓和熵的计算，混合气体的概念，分压力和分容积，混合气体成分 表示方法及其核算，混合气体的比热、内能、焓和熵的计算 第四章气体的基本热力过程四个典型热力过程，多变过程及多变指数 第五章热力学第二定律过程的方向性，卡诺循环和卡诺定理，熵的导出，孤立系统熵增原理，熵方程，熵流与熵产，作功能力损失 第六章实际气体的性质实际气体的性质，范德瓦尔方程，对应态原理，通用压缩因子图 第七章蒸汽的性质蒸汽的性质，蒸汽图表及其应用， 第八章气体和蒸气流动稳定流动基本方程，流速和流量，临界压力比，临界流速和最大流量，喷管的计算，摩阻对流动的影响，绝热滞止，绝热节流，第九章气体的压缩气体的理想压缩功，压缩机的效率，活塞式压缩机余隙容积的影响，多级压缩和中间冷却 第十章动力循环分析分析循环的热效率法，分析循环中不可逆损失的熵方法第十一章蒸汽动力循环朗肯循环，蒸汽参数对循环热效率的影响，再热循环，回热循环， 第十二章气体动力循环活塞式内燃机循环，燃气轮机装置循环，提高循环热效率的各种途径， 第十三章制冷循环空气压缩制冷，蒸汽压缩制冷，提高制冷系数的各种途径，第十四章湿空气湿空气的概念，湿空气的热力过程，焓湿图，湿空气的应用，
建筑环境与设备工程专业 一、选择题(每小题3分，共分) 1.若已知工质的绝对压力P=0.18MPa，环境压力Pa=0.1MPa，则测得的压差为( B ) A.真空pv=0.08Mpa B.表压力pg=0.08MPa C.真空pv=0.28Mpa D.表压力pg=0.28MPa 2.简单可压缩热力系的准平衡过程中工质压力降低，则( A ) A.技术功为正 B.技术功为负 C.体积功为正 D.体积功为负 3.理想气体可逆定温过程的特点是( B ) A.q=0 B. Wt=W C. Wt>W D. Wt A.焓值增加 B.焓值减少 C.熵增加 D.熵减少 7.空气在渐缩喷管内可逆绝热稳定流动，其滞止压力为0.8MPa，喷管后的压力为0.2MPa，若喷管因出口磨损截去一段，则喷管出口空气的参数变化为( C ) A.流速不变，流量不变 B.流速降低，流量减小 C.流速不变，流量增大 D.流速降低，流量不变 8.把同样数量的气体由同一初态压缩到相同的终压，经( A )过程气体终温最高。 A.绝热压缩 B.定温压缩 C.多变压缩 D.多级压缩 9._________过程是可逆过程。( C ) A.可以从终态回复到初态的 B.没有摩擦的 C.没有摩擦的准平衡 D.没有温差的 10.绝对压力p, 真空pv，环境压力Pa 间的关系为( D ) A.p+pv+pa=0 B.p+pa－pv=0 C.p－pa－pv=0 D.pa－pv－p=0 11 Q.闭口系能量方程为( D ) A. +△U+W=0 B.Q+△U－W=0 C.Q－△U+W=0 D.Q－△U－W=0 12.气体常量Rr( A ) 一、1.若已知工质的绝对压力P=0.18MPa，环境压力Pa=0.1MPa，则测得的压差为( B ) A.真空pv=0.08Mpa B.表压力pg=0.08MPa C.真空pv=0.28Mpa D.表压力pg=0.28MPa 2.简单可压缩热力系的准平衡过程中工质压力降低，则( A ) A.技术功为正 B.技术功为负 C.体积功为正 D.体积功为负 3.理想气体可逆定温过程的特点是( B ) A.q=0 B. Wt=W C. Wt>W D. Wt 全国考研专业课高分资料 中北大学 《工程热力学》 期末题 笔记：目标院校目标专业本科生笔记或者辅导班笔记 讲义：目标院校目标专业本科教学课件 期末题：目标院校目标专业本科期末测试题2-3 套 模拟题：目标院校目标专业考研专业课模拟测试题 2 套 复习题：目标院校目标专业考研专业课导师复习题 真题：目标院校目标专业历年考试真题，本项为赠送项，未公布的不送！ 中北大学工程热力学试题（A）卷（闭卷） 2013--2014 学年第一学期 学号：姓名： 一、单项选择题（本大题共 15 小题，每题只有一个正确答案，答对一题得 1 分，共15分） 1、压力为 10 bar 的气体通过渐缩喷管流入 1 bar 的环境中，现将喷管尾部 截去一段，其流速、流量变化为。【】 A. 流速减小，流量不变 B.流速不变，流量增加 C.流速不变，流量不变 D. 2 、某制冷机在热源T1= 300K，及冷源消耗功为 250 KJ ，此制冷机是流速减小，流量增大 T2= 250K 之间工作，其制冷量为 【】 1000 KJ， A. 可逆的 B. 不可逆的 C.不可能的 D. 可逆或不可逆的 3、系统的总储存能为【】 A. U B. U pV C. U mc2f / 2 mgz D. U pV mc2f / 2 mgz 4、熵变计算式s c p In (T2 / T1) R g In ( p2 / p1) 只适用于【】 A. 一切工质的可逆过程 B.一切工质的不可逆过程 C.理想气体的可逆过程 D.理想气体的一切过程 5、系统进行一个不可逆绝热膨胀过程后，欲使系统回复到初态，系统需要进行 一个【】过程。 工程热力学期末试卷 建筑环境与设备工程专业适用 （闭卷，150分钟） 班级 姓名 学号 成绩 一、简答题(每小题5分，共40分) 1. 什么是热力过程？可逆过程的主要特征是什么？ 答：热力系统从一个平衡态到另一个平衡态，称为热力过程。可逆过程的主要特征是驱动过程进行的势差无限小，即准静过程，且无耗散。 2. 温度为500°C 的热源向热机工质放出500 kJ 的热量，设环境温度为30°C ，试问这部分热量的火用（yong ）值（最大可用能）为多少？ 答： =??? ? ?++- ?=15.27350015.273301500,q x E 303.95kJ 3. 两个不同温度（T 1,T 2）的恒温热源间工作的可逆热机，从高温热源T 1吸收热量Q 1向低温热源T 2放出热量Q 2，证明：由高温热源、低温热源、热机和功源四个子系统构成的孤立系统熵增 。假设功源的熵变△S W =0。 证明：四个子系统构成的孤立系统熵增为 （1分） 对热机循环子系统： 1分 1分 根据卡诺定理及推论： 1 4. A 中存有高压空气，B 中保持真空，如右图所示。若将隔板抽去，试分析容器中空气的状态参数（T 、P 、u 、s 、v ）如何变化，并简述为什么。 答：u 、T 不变，P 减小，v 增大，s 增大。 5. 试由开口系能量方程一般表达式出发，证明绝热节流过程中，节流前后工质的焓值不变。（绝热节流过 程可看作稳态稳流过程，宏观动能和重力位能的变化可忽略不计） 答：开口系一般能量方程表达式为 绝热节流过程是稳态稳流过程，因此有如下简化条件 自由膨胀 12iso T T R S S S S S ?=?+?+?+?W 12 1200 ISO Q Q S T T -?=+++R 0S ?= iso 0 S ?=工程热力学期末考试试题
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工程热力学期末试题及答案【第五版】【建环专业适用】
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